Fig 1.
Conceptual framework of the interactions along the flow of ecosystem services from the supply-side to the demand-side and human well-being.
Blue arrows represent the flow of ecosystem services. Beige arrows denote interactions within or from the social system (Inspired from Haines-Young and Potschin [32], Martín-López et al. [34], Spangenberg et al. [36]).
Table 1.
Key concepts related to ecosystem services and definitions.
Concepts are listed according to the order they appear in the text.
Fig 2.
The watershed of the River Piedra in NE Spain divided by municipality boundaries.
Dots indicate ecological sample points and stars social sample points (note that external stakeholders are not represented in this figure).
Table 2.
Description of the supporting ecosystem properties and ecosystem services identified as relevant to maintain the flow of services in the River Piedra floodplain.
Table 3.
Stakeholders’ groups, number of respondents, and description.
Fig 3.
Conceptual diagram of the initial structural equation model (SEM) based on those paths among variables determined by the expert panel.
Latent variables (i.e., ecosystem properties or services) are denoted by ellipses, while manifest variables (i.e., the indicators used) are inside a box. Supporting ecosystem properties (i.e., exogenous latent variables) are shaded, intermediate regulating services are dashed, and final services are solid.
Table 4.
Latent variables, adjusted R2 (R2 a), average communality (Ave. Com.), and Dillon-Goldstein’s (D.G.) Rho from the structural equation modelling (SEM).
Fig 4.
Structural equation model (SEM) results, showing the relationships between ecosystem services.
Colours indicate the type of ecosystem service (green = regulating, gold = provisioning, purple = cultural) and supporting ecosystem properties (blue). Intermediate regulating services are dashed and final services are solid. Arrow thickness represents the percentage of the contribution to each service, where solid arrows represent positive relations and dashed arrows negative relations. Numbers near arrows indicate the standardized regression coefficient and the asterisks denote significance (* p ≤ 0.05; ** p ≤ 0.01; *** p ≤ 0.001).
Fig 5.
Ecosystem services related to each stakeholder group.
Solid arrows represent positive relations between ecosystem services and dashed arrows negative relations. Colours indicate the type of ecosystem services (green = regulating, gold = provisioning, purple = cultural) and supporting ecosystem properties (blue). Intermediate regulating services are dashed and final services are solid. Impaired ecosystem services are in red, ecosystem services managed or co-produced are in bold, and they are marked with an asterisk (*) when managed by a single group. Note that habitat quality and carbon sequestration were only indirectly used by groups 1, 2 and 3, and that all ecosystem services linked to group 4 (excluding environmental education) were used indirectly.
Table 5.
Classification of the ecosystem services used in the River Piedra floodplain according to a rival/non-rival and excludable/non-excludable gradient.
Fig 6.
a) Stakeholders’ use versus ability to manage ecosystem services (ES), and b) Stakeholders’ use versus ability to impair ecosystem services (ES).
The colour of the box indicates the type of ecosystem service (green = regulating, gold = provisioning, purple = cultural) and supporting ecosystem properties (blue). Rival and excludable services are in rectangles, non-rival and non-excludable services are in ellipses, and congestible services (non-excludable that can move from non-rival to rival) are in parallelograms. Bold boxes mark ecosystem services managed by a unique stakeholder group, and dashed boxes indicate ecosystem services used and impaired by the same single-stakeholder group. Numbers in parentheses indicate the stakeholder group (1 = Primary sector; 2 = Recreation sector; 3 = Leisure; 4 = Formal institutions; G = Global extent). The main clusters identified are marked in solid red boxes, and the secondary clusters in dotted red boxes.