Fig 1.
Adapted CONSORT flowchart for clinical trials.
Fig 2.
Subjective Appetite Perceptions.
Relative to fructose treatments, ingested glucose increased subjective feelings of (A) satiety (n.s.) and (B) fullness (AUC-15 min: p = 0.04) and reduced feelings of (C) hunger (n.s.) and (D) prospective food consumption (AUC-15 min: p = 0.017). Differences seen between placebo and fructose, resp. placebo and glucose were non-significant.
Fig 3.
Plasma concentrations of Glucose, Insulin, GLP-1 and GIP after glucose and fructose treatment.
(A) Glucose, (B) Insulin, (C) GLP-1 and (D) GIP after oral intake of 75g glucose resp. 25g fructose. Glucose ingestion caused significantly greater elevations in plasma glucose (p = 0.001), insulin (p< 0.001), GLP-1 (p = 0.007), GIP (p< 0.001) concentrations compared to fructose ingestion (AUC 0-60min). Data are expressed as mean ± SEM.
Fig 4.
Spatial maps representing the resting state basal ganglia/limbic network for each treatment condition.
Spatial maps representing the reward network detected by GICA for (A) the placebo (i.e. water), (B) glucose and (C) fructose treatment. Maps were created using a one-sample t-test for each treatment (randomize, FWE-corrected at p = 0.001). Regions belonging to this network include the entire striatum, thalamus, and amygdala. The right side of the brain is displayed on the right side of the figure.
Fig 5.
Differences in functional resting state connectivity to the basal ganglia/limbic network between glucose and fructose administration.
(A) Dual regression to the basal ganglia/limbic network demonstrates a glucose-induced increase in rsFC of the left caudatus (x = -17, y = 18, z = 8), left putamen (x = -34, y = -18, z = -8), precuneus (x = -18, y = -60, z = 32) and lingual gyrus (x = -18, y = -73, z = -3) relative to fructose (p = 0.02 uncorrected) (B) Fructose increased rsFC of left amygdala (x = -14, y = -3, z = -14), left hippocampus (x = -18, y = -4, z = -24), right (para)-hippocampus (x = 11, y = 0, z = -32), OFC (x = -33, y = 23, z = -16) and precentral gyrus (x = -34, y = -8, z = 57) compared with glucose (p = 0.02 uncorrected).
Fig 6.
(A) Correlations between resting state functional connectivity, insulin release and subjective appetite perception. In relation to placebo, the glucose-induced increase in functional connectivity strength (parameter estimates; PE) within the basal ganglia/limbic network correlated positively with the glucose-induced insulin release (μU/mL) (r = 0.62, p = 0.03). (B) Relative to fructose, the glucose-induced increase in functional connectivity strength within basal ganglia/limbic network correlated positively with and the glucose-induced insulin release (r = 0.65, p = 0.02). (C) In relation to placebo, the fructose-induced increase in functional connectivity strength within the basal ganglia/limbic network correlated positively at trend level with the fructose-induced feeling of hunger (r = 0.57, p = 0.069).