Fig 1.
Map of the Koreanic language variants.
Colored areas represent the conventional subgrouping scheme for the Koreanic language variants (Orange-Hamgyong, Yellow-Pyongan, Aqua-Central, Blue-Gyeongsang, Purple-Jeolla, Red-Jeju). Sample locations: 1-Jeju, 2-Southern Jeolla, 3-Northern Jeolla, 4-Southern Gyeongsang, 5-Northern Gyeongsang, 6-Southern Chungcheong, 7-Northern Chungcheong, 8-Gyeonggi, 9-Gangwong, 10-Hwanghae, 11-Southern Pyongan, 12-Northern Pyongan, 13-Southern Hamgyong, 14-Northern Hamgyong.
Fig 2.
Phylogenies of 15 Korean language variants.
(A) Left panel shows a maximum clade credibility tree. Branches are colored according to the conventional subgrouping scheme (Orange-Hamgyong, Yellow-Pyongan, Aqua-Central, Blue-Gyeongsang, Purple-Jeolla, Red-Jeju). All node heights are scaled to match the posterior median node heights. The value on each branch is the posterior probability, showing the percentage support for the following node. (B) Right panel shows a cloudogram of consensus trees. Branch lengths of each consensus tree represent the average branch lengths of all sampled trees with the same topology. The low node supports in the maximum clade credibility tree and the lack of consistency in the cloudogram indicate that the evolution of the Koreanic language variants is far from treelike. Estimated divergence times are not shown because they may potentially be misleading. Numbers in the tip labels match the sample locations in Fig 1.
Fig 3.
Split graph showing the results of NeighborNet and STRUCTURE.
Reticulations indicate presence of conflicting signal, which can be interpreted as admixture, horizontal transmission, and rapid radiation. Circles at the tips represent the amount of admixture between clusters (K = 2) estimated by STRUCTURE. Numbers in the tip labels match the sample locations in Fig 1.
Fig 4.
Maps showing the geographical features and linguistic barriers.
(A) Left panel shows point-by-point estimates of altitude in the Korean Peninsula. (B) Right panel shows the result of Barrier analysis on a geometric network of sample locations. Sample locations: 1-Jeju, 2-Southern Jeolla, 3-Northern Jeolla, 4-Southern Gyeongsang, 5-Northern Gyeongsang, 6-Southern Chungcheong, 7-Northern Chungcheong, 8-Gyeonggi, 9-Gangwong, 10-Hwanghae, 11-Southern Pyongan, 12-Northern Pyongan, 13-Southern Hamgyong, 14-Northern Hamgyong.