Fig 1.
The area shaded gray is the Namdapha Tiger Reserve. The enclosed box shows the intensively sampled area with unbroken lines representing the eight trails in the less disturbed site (Namdapha Tiger Reserve) and broken lines representing the four trails in the heavily disturbed site (Miao Reserved Forest).
Table 1.
Mean (SE) of the fruit and seed length (mm) and width (mm) for the five large-seeded hornbill food plants.
Fig 2.
Number of trees per ha (± SE) across the three different categories of food plants.
(a) logged, food plants (b) not logged and (c) strangler figs in the less disturbed site (Namdapha) and the heavily disturbed site (Miao).
Table 2.
Mean (± SE) of adult tree densities (per ha) and seed arrival rates (per ha) on forest floor of five important hornbill food plant species.
Fig 3.
Number of hornbills per km (± SE) detected across the sampling period in the less disturbed site (Namdapha) and the heavily disturbed site (Miao).
Fig 4.
Seed arrival per day in heavily and less disturbed sites.
Bootstrap mean and 95% confidence intervals of number of seeds per day per 200 m2 (200 1 m2 plots per trail) in the less disturbed site (Namdapha) and the heavily disturbed site (Miao).
Fig 5.
Seedling and sapling recruitment in heavily and less disturbed sites.
Bootstrap mean and 95% confidence intervals of number of recruits per ha in the less disturbed site (Namdapha) and the heavily disturbed site (Miao) for a) Phoebe sp. b) Beilschmiedia assamica and c) Dysoxylum sp. across the four size classes 10–30 cm, 30–50 cm, 50–100 cm and 100–150 cm.
Fig 6.
Conceptual model of direct and indirect impacts of logging and hunting on seed dispersal cycle.
The relationship (black solid arrow) across different stages of seed dispersal (shown in open rectangular boxes) and direct (color coded oval box without outline and broken arrow) and indirect (color coded rectangular box without outline) impacts of logging (dark grey rectangular box with outline) and hunting (light grey rectangular box with outline) on the different stages of the seed dispersal. Dashed and dotted line shows additional likely impacts of logging (not explored in this study) on plant recruitment.