Figure 1.
Location of the three study sites.
Location of the three study sites: Manaus, Santarém and Machadinho d’Oeste (M. d’Oeste), and the insertion (bottom left) of the Brazilian Legal Amazon (dark grey) in Brazil (light grey) and South American continent. Also shown are the major rivers included in the Amazon basin.
Table 1.
Landsat Multi-spectral Scanner (MSS), Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced TM (ETM+) data available for the three Amazonian sites.
Table 2.
Error matrix obtained from the accuracy assessment of the 2007 land cover map of the Manaus site (MF – mature forest, NF – non-forest, SF – secondary forest).
Table 3.
Error matrix obtained from the accuracy assessment of the 2010 land cover map of the Santarém site (MF – mature forest, NF – non-forest, SF – secondary forest).
Table 4.
Error matrix obtained from the accuracy assessment of the 2010 land cover map of the Machadinho d’Oeste site (MF – mature forest, NF – non-forest, SF – secondary forest).
Table 5.
Area (ha) and relative incidence (RI, %) of perennial (PC) and tree (TC) crops with the mapped area of mature forest (MF), non-forest (NF) and secondary forest (SF).
Figure 2.
Land cover change (%) across the three selected sites.
Land cover change (%) across the three selected sites; A) Manaus (1973–2011), B) Santarém (1984–2010), and C) Machadinho d’Oeste (1984–2011). Each dashed line represent the linear fit of the proportion of each land cover class as a function of the year; also showing are the corresponding equations and coefficient of determination (R2).(○ - mature forest, □ - non-forest, Δ- secondary forest).
Table 6.
Land cover proportion (%) of mature forest (MF), non-forest (NF) and secondary forest (SF) in each year of the time-series at Manaus, Santarém and Machadinho d’Oeste.
Table 7.
Summary of deforestation and regrowth rates between consecutive dates in the Manaus time-series (MF – mature forest; SF – secondary forest).
Table 8.
Summary of deforestation and regrowth rates between consecutive dates in the Santarém time-series (MF – mature forest; SF – secondary forest).
Table 9.
Summary of deforestation and regrowth rates between consecutive dates in the Machadinho d’Oeste time-series (MF – mature forest; SF – secondary forest).
Table 10.
An assessment of the dynamics of land use at Manaus, Santarém and Machadinho d’Oeste (figures in brackets represent the number of years).
Figure 3.
Maps displaying the age of secondary forest (ASF, years) across the three selected sites.
Maps displaying the age of secondary forest (ASF) across the three selected sites for areas undergoing secondary forest (SF) in the last year of the corresponding time-series; A) Manaus (2011), B) Santarém (2010), and C) Machadinho d’Oeste (2011).
Figure 4.
Maps displaying the period of active land use (PALU, years) across the three selected sites.
Maps displaying the period of active land use (PALU, years) across the three selected sites for areas undergoing secondary forest (SF) in the last year of the corresponding time-series; A) Manaus (2011), B) Santarém (2010), and C) Machadinho d’Oeste (2011). An area of 667 ha (1.5%) with a PALU of zero in the Santarém site was included in the short PALU class (≤2 years) and corresponds to areas that were SF from 1984 to 2010.
Figure 5.
Maps displaying the frequency of clearance (FC) across the three selected sites.
Maps displaying the frequency of clearance (FC) across the three selected sites for areas undergoing secondary forest (SF) in the last year of the corresponding time-series; A) Manaus (2011), B) Santarém (2010), and C) Machadinho d’Oeste (2011). In Manaus, Santarém and Machadinho d’Oeste an area of 103 ha (0.1%), 726 ha (1.6%), and 55 ha (0.1%), respectively, with a PALU of zero was included in the low FC class (1 time) and corresponded to areas that were non-forest (NF) in the first date of the time-series and no clearance has occurred in the secondary forest (SF) that persisted until the end of the time-series. In Santarém, the 726 ha also included areas that were already SF in 1984 that persisted until 2010.
Figure 6.
Classes of age of secondary forest, period of active land use, and frequency of clearance for the three sites.
Classes of A) age of secondary forest (ASF), B) period of active land use (PALU), and C) frequency of clearance (FC) for the three sites, as a proportion of the area with secondary forest (SF) in the last date of the time-series. The proportion of the area with SF in the first class of PALU (≤2 years) in the Santarém site includes a small proportion (1.5%) corresponding to areas of SF persisting in all dates of the time-series. The proportion of the area with SF in the first class of FC (1x) in Manaus, Santarém and Machadinho d’Oeste includes a small percentage (0.1%, 1.6%, 0.1%, respectively) corresponding to those cases where non-forest (NF) was observed in the first date of the time-series and no clearance has occurred (i.e., the only transition was from NF to SF).
Table 11.
Percentage of area with SF in the last date of the time-series, per combination of PALU and FC classes.
Figure 7.
Proportion of the area with secondary forest (SF) as a function of the number of years following the onset of SF for the three classes of age of secondary forest.
Proportion of the area with secondary forest (SF) as a function of the number of years following the onset of SF for the three classes of age of secondary forest (ASF) in A) Manaus, B) Santarém, and C) Machadinho d’Oeste: initial, ≤5 years; intermediate, 6–15 years; advanced, ≥16 years.
Figure 8.
Proportion of the area with secondary forest (SF) as a function of the number of years following the onset of SF for the three classes of period of active land use.
Proportion of the area with secondary forest (SF) as a function of the number of years following the onset of SF for the three classes of period of active land use (PALU) in A) Manaus, B) Santarém, and C) Machadinho d’Oeste: short, ≤2 years; medium, 3–4 years; long, ≥5 years.
Figure 9.
Proportion of the area with secondary forest (SF) as a function of the number of years following the onset of SF for the three classes of frequency of clearance.
Proportion of the area with secondary forest (SF) as a function of the number of years following the onset of SF for the three classes of frequency of clearance (FC) in A) Manaus, B) Santarém, and C) Machadinho d’Oeste: low, 1 time; medium, 2 times; high, ≥3 times.
Figure 10.
Deforestation rates in the Amazonas, Pará and Rondônia states according to INPE, 2013 [13].
Deforestation rates since 1988 (ha yr−1) in the Amazonas, Pará and Rondônia states according to the data reported by INPE, 2013 [13].