Table 1.
List of primers used for virus analyses.
Table 2.
Active ingredients or metabolite included in the multi-residue analyses by beekeeping matrix (A = Acaricide; F = Fungicide; H = Herbicide; I = Insecticide; S = Synergist).
Figure 1.
Spatial distribution of selected apiaries.
Table 3.
Symptoms observed in the group with disorders.
Figure 2.
Virus content according to the Cycle Threshold (CT) for the groups “with disorder” and “healthy”.
Boxplot of Cycle Threshold for the first and second visits (visit 1 - mid-July to mid-august and visit 2 - mid-September to mid-October) and the group with disorders (grey, n = 24 colonies) and the healthy one (white, n = 29 colonies). Deformed Wings Virus (DWV), Black Queen Cell Virus (BQCV), SacBrood Virus (SBV), Acute Bee Paralysis Virus (ABPV), Chronic Bee Paralysis Virus (CBPV). In red, mean with confidence interval estimated by boostrap method. Note: CT values below 40 were regarded as positive results and the lowest CT values correspond to the higher virus contents.
Figure 3.
Average number of different viruses per colony.
Data shown for the first and second visits (visit 1 - mid-July to mid-august and visit 2 - mid-September to mid-October) and the group with disorders (grey, n = 24 colonies) and the healthy one (white, n = 29 colonies). Whiskers show the standard error (SE).
Figure 4.
Proportion of samples containing residues of acaricides/insecticides in the different beekeeping matrices (honey, beebread and wax).
Data shown for the group with disorders (grey, n = 25 colonies) and the healthy one (white, n = 29 colonies).
Figure 5.
Proportion of samples containing residues of fungicides in the different beekeeping matrices (honey, beebread and wax).
Data shown for the group with disorders (grey, n = 25 colonies) and the healthy one (white, n = 29 colonies).
Table 4.
Residues of active ingredients found in wax, beebread and honey samples from colonies with disorders (Group D, n = 25 colonies) and healthy ones (Group H, n = 29 colonies).
Figure 6.
Average number of residues per colony.
Data shown for the group with disorders (grey, n = 25 colonies) and the healthy ones (white, n = 29 colonies). Whiskers show the standard error (SE).
Figure 7.
Probability of honeybee colony disorders depending on the number of fungicide residues detected.
Model based on averaged coefficients and median value both for the number of insecticides-acaricides residues and total number of virus detected for both visits (n = 53 colonies).
Table 5.
Analysis of deviance table for generalized linear binomial models describing the relationships between the colony disorder probability and three variables: the total number of (1) fungicide residues (totfungicides), (2) insecticide-acaricide residues (totinsaca) and (3) virus detected for both visits (totvirus).
Figure 8.
Probability of honeybee colony disorders depending on the apiary’s environment.
Consideration of crop surface vs. grassland surface in a radius of 1500 m around the apiary. Crops include fruit, vegetables, fodder production and horticulture. For each graph, the value of the variable not displayed is fixed to its observed mean (n = 53 colonies).