Table 1.
Summary of Spatial Data.
Figure 1.
A close-up view of an area in West Kalimantan province, Borneo (see top-right inset for location).
In this example, an intact forest in year 1973 was logged in 1990 and became converted to an industrial oil Palm Plantation in 2010. On the 1973 LANDSAT MSS imagery (false color composite: 3-4-2) forest appears dark green (panel A). The resulting forest non-forest supervised classification is shown in panel D. On the 1990 LANDSAT TM imagery (false color composite: 5-4-3) primary logging roads are seen carving through the forest (panel B). The logging roads (yellow lines) and public roads (black lines) are shown in panel E. An aerial view of a primary logging road (Photo by R. Butler [53]) is shown the inset of panel B. On the 2010 LANDSAT TM imagery), the forest has become converted to an industrial oil palm plantation (grid-like patterns). The boundary of the plantations was digitized by visual interpretation (Panel F).
Figure 2.
Map showing the areas where validation of the forest and plantation maps was performed.
Area covered by 1965–68 KH7 imagery (Black) used to validate the 1973 forest map in Left Panel. Area covered by 2010 IKONOS and QUICKBIRD imagery (Black) used to validate the 2010 forest and plantation maps in Right Panel.
Table 2.
Accuracy results of 1973 ‘Forest’, and ‘Non-forest’ classification.
Table 3.
Accuracy results of 2010 ‘Forest’, ‘Non-forest’, ‘Industrial oil palm plantation (IOPP)’, and ‘Industrial timber plantation (ITP)’ classification.
Figure 3.
Four decades of forest persistence, clearance and logging on Borneo.
Forest (dark green) and non-forest (white) in year 1973, and residual clouds (cyan) in Panel A. Areas of forest loss during 1973–2010 (red) in Panel B. Primary logging roads from 1973–2010 (yellow lines) in Panel C. Remaining intact forest (dark green), remaining logged forest (light green), and industrial oil palm and timber plantations (Black) in year 2010 in Panel D.
Table 4.
Intact, logged and cleared forest area by country and elevation, 1973 and 2010.
Table 5.
Length and density of primary logging roads by country.
Figure 4.
Relationship between distance to selected logging roads established in year 2000 and percent tree cover (2000/2001).
The black points at approximately 70% on the y-axis are median values for each distance class. The boxes centered on each median are bounded by the 75th and 25th percentile values of each distance class. Grey circles flag ‘outliers’ having values lower/higher than the 25th/75th percentile by 1.5–3 times the inter-quartile range. Asterisks flag extreme ‘outliers’ having values >3 times lower/higher than the 25th/75th percentile value.
Figure 5.
Expansion of the primary logging road network in Borneo from 1973 until 2010.
Figure 6.
The heart of Borneo and the spatial progression of logging since 1973 depicting a logging ‘frontier’ moving steadily upward and inland, from the lowland coasts to the highlands.
In many areas, logging roads are surrounding and abutting against the edges of highland protected forests – the last contiguous bastions of intact forest.