Figure 1.
Shh and Ihh expression levels along the intestinal rostro-caudal axis and loss of Shh expression in the ileal and colonic epithelium of ShhΔIEC mice.
Quantification of Ihh and Shh mRNA expression levels along the intestinal rostro-caudal axis was performed by qPCR (A) (n = 7). Total mRNA from intestinal epithelial fractions isolated along the villus-to-crypt axis by the Weiser method (n = 3) were used to monitor mRNA levels of sucrase-isomaltase and Shh along the crypt-to-villus axis (B). Semi-quantitative PCR analysis was performed to detect Shh mRNA expression levels in the ileum and colon of ShhΔIEC and control mice (C and D). Semi-quantitative PCR analysis showed no modulation in Ihh mRNA expression levels in ShhΔIEC mice when compared with control animals (E and F). Statistical analysis indicated a significant 1.2-fold decrease in small intestine length of 180-day-old ShhΔIEC mice when compared to controls (G) whereas no modulation was observed in the colon (H) (n = 7). One-way ANOVA *p<0.05 (B), Student T-test *p<0.05, **p<0.01 (D and G). Error bar represent SEM. SI, sucrase-isomaltase; Duo, duodenum; Jej, jejunum, PC, proximal colon; DC, distal colon.
Figure 2.
Loss of intestinal epithelial Shh signaling deregulates intestinal crypt epithelial proliferation.
Hematoxylin and eosin staining was performed on ileal paraffin sections of 180-day-old control (A) or ShhΔIEC (B) mice. The length of the crypt/villus axis was determined using MetaMorph v7.7 software and statistical analysis revealed a 1.2-fold reduction in crypt-villus axis length in ShhΔIEC ileum when compared to controls (C) (n = 4). Apoptosis assays by TUNEL staining were performed on paraffin sections of 180-day-old control (D) or ShhΔIEC (E) mice. DAPI (blue staining) served as a counterstain. No modulation in the number of TUNEL-positive cells was observed between mutant and controls (F). Proliferation assays were performed by PCNA immunostaining (G and H, green labeling), with Evans blue serving as counterstain (red staining). Mutants displayed a decrease in cell proliferation as shown by a decrease in the number of PCNA-labeled proliferating cells (H) when compared to controls (G). The number of PCNA-positive cells was quantified in the ileum of both controls and mutants (n = 4). Statistical analysis of the number of positive PCNA cells revealed a significant 1.3-fold decrease in proliferation in mutant animals (I). (n = 4) Two-way ANOVA ***p<0.001. Scale bar: 50 µm. Error bars represent SEM.
Figure 3.
Loss of intestinal epithelial Shh signaling does not activate the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.
Immunostaining with an anti-β-catenin antibody revealed no modulation of nuclear translocation of β-catenin (black arrows) between controls (A) and mutant mice (B). Immunostaining with an anti-E-cadherin antibody in both control (C) and mutant mice (D) enabled to determine the localization of the cell membrane relative to that of the nucleus. Western blot analysis for c-Myc and cyclin D1/D2 classical targets of epithelial cell proliferation was performed on ileal extracts from control and ShhΔIEC mice (E). Densitometry analysis of exposed films using ImageJ revealed no significant modulation in c-Myc and cyclin D1/D2 expression levels in ShhΔIEC mice compared to controls (F) (n = 3) Student t-test. Scale bar: 50 µm.
Figure 4.
Absorptive cell differentiation is not affected by the loss of intestinal epithelial Shh signaling.
Immunostaining for intestinal fatty acid binding protein (iFABP) (green labeling) was performed on 180-day-old ShhΔIEC mice (B) and control littermates (A). Evans blue (red staining) served as a counterstain. Quantitative RT-PCR of sucrase-isomaltase revealed no modulation between mutant and control mice (C) (n = 7). Ultrastructural assessment of the apical membrane of ileal enterocytes from mutant mice (E) showed normal apical brush border and junctional complexes when compared to control littermates (D). Western blot analysis of claudin-1 and 2, Jam-A, occludin and E-cadherin was performed on total ileum lysates isolated from ShhΔIEC and control mice (F) (n = 4). Scale bar: 50 µm (A and B). Scale bar: 0.5 µm (D and E) Error bars represent SEM. SI, sucrase-isomaltase.
Figure 5.
Enteroendocrine cells are not affected by the loss of intestinal epithelial Shh signaling.
Chromogranin A was used as a general endocrine cell marker as it labels all subtypes of enteroendocrine cells. No modulation was observed in chromogranin A (CgA)-positive cells (green staining) in the ileal epithelium of control (A) and ShhΔIEC mice (B). Evans blue (red staining) served as a counterstain. The number of enteroendocrine (CgA)-positive cells was determined from the ileum of control and mutant mice (n = 4) (C). Scale bar: 50 µm. Two-way ANOVA. Error bars represent SEM.
Figure 6.
Shh signaling is required for proper production of goblet cell secretory products and Paneth cell maturation.
Alcian blue staining was performed to detect mucin (Muc2)-containing goblet cells in control (A) and mutant (B) littermates. Goblet cells were counted from ileum of control and ShhΔIEC mice (n = 4) with statistical analysis showing a significant 1.2-fold decrease in the number of acidic mucin-positive cells in mutant mice compared to controls (C). Immunostaining with an anti-lysozyme antibody showed a decrease in positively-labeled lysozyme cells (green staining) in mutant mice (E) compared to control littermates (D). Evans blue (red staining) served as a counterstain. Paneth cells were counted from ileum of control and ShhΔIEC mice (n = 4) and statistical analysis showed a significant 1.3 fold decrease in the number of lysozyme-positive cells in mutant mice compared to controls (F). Fucosylated residues in goblet and Paneth cells were analyzed using Ulex europeus-I agglutinin (UEA-I) lectin staining (G and H). UEA-1 staining exposed an important defect in fucosylation in ileal goblet cells in ShhΔIEC mice (H) when compared to controls (G), whereas fucosylation was not modulated in Paneth cells of ShhΔIEC mice (white arrows, H) when compared to controls (white arrowheads, G). Scale bar: 50 µm. Two-way ANOVA ***p<0.001. Error bars represent SEM.
Figure 7.
Loss of intestinal epithelial Shh signaling leads to an increase in ER stress and a decrease in autophagy in intestinal epithelial cells (IECs).
Transmission electron microscopy revealed a dilated ER lumen in ShhΔIEC Paneth cells (black arrows, B) when compared to controls (black arrowheads, A). Ultrastructural examination revealed granule abnormalities in mutant mice (B). Paneth granules were counted in both ShhΔIEC and control mice and no significant modulation was found in the number of granules per Paneth cell between control and mutant mice (C) (n = 4). The mean size of Paneth cell granules was determined using MetaMorph software and statistical analysis revealed that granules were significantly smaller in ShhΔIEC ileum when compared to controls (D) (n = 4). Western blot analysis against defensin 4, IRE1α, p62, lipidated LC3b-II and non-lipidated LC3b-I proteins were performed on ileal extracts from control and ShhΔIEC mice (E). Densitometry analysis of exposed films using ImageJ revealed a significant 3.85-fold decrease in defensin 4 expression (F) a significant 3.6-fold increase in IRE1α (G) and a significant 2.13-fold increase in p62 (H) in ShhΔIEC mice compared to controls (n = 3). An 11-fold decrease in lipidated LC3b-II to non-lipidated LC3b-I ratio in ShhΔIEC mice can be seen compared to controls (I) (n = 3). Two-way ANOVA ***p<0.001 (C–D). Student t-test *p<0.05, **p<0.01 (F–I). Error bar represents SEM. Scale bar: 2 µm. Def 4, defensin 4.