Figure 1.
Illustration of the measured traits.
Schematic drawings of a Sericini beetle in (A) dorsal, (B) ventral, and (C) lateral aspect. Body: BH - maximal body height, EH - maximal elytra height, EL - maximal elytra length, Eld - maximal diagonal elytra length, Elmb - length from maximal body width to elytral apex, EW - maximal elytra width, Ewb - elytral width at middle of scutellum, PL - maximal pronotum length, PW - maximal pronotum width; Head: ED - maximal eye diameter, HW - maximal head with including eyes, IOD - minimal interocular distance (dorsal view); Legs: MCL - maximal length of metacoxa, MFL - maximal length of metafemur, MFW - maximal width of metafemur, MTL - maximal length of metatibia, MTW - maximal width of metatibia, PFL - maximal length of profemur, PFW - maximal width of profemur, PTL - maximal length of protibia.
Figure 2.
Patterns of morphospace covariation between major phylogenetic lineages and feeding types.
Scatterplots of the principal component scores from the analysis of the complete sampling of (A, D) the uncorrected and the size-corrected data sets from (B, E) the Burnaby Back Projection Method (BBPM) and (C, F) the linear regression method with (A–C) major phylogenetic lineages and (D–F) feeding types projected on it (ANT = anthophilous, COP = coprophagous, HERB = herbivorous, SFU = sap/fluid utilizers, NF = not feeding, SAP = saprophagous). The percentage of variance explained by principal component 1 and 2 is given in each upper right corner. Taxa with more than 2 members are surrounded by a similarly colored hull. (G–I) Morphospace divergence within the feeding types projected on scatterplots of the principal component scores from size corrected data (BBPM): (G) Herbivores, (H) anthophilous, and (I) the remaining feeding types. Dots are color-coded in the molecular phylogeny (Figure 3A) for phylogenetic lineages. x-axis: PC1, y-axis: PC2.
Figure 3.
Backbone phylogeny and morphospace covariation between sister clade subsets of the complete sampling.
(A) Phylogenetic tree of major scarab lineages from the Bayesian analysis of Ahrens and Vogler [31]. Scatterplots of the principal component scores for the uncorrected and the size-corrected data sets: (B–D) Cetoniini (Cet) + Valgini and Adoretini (Ado) + Anomalini (Ano) + Dynastinae (Dyn), (E–G) Adoretini, Anomalini, and Dynastinae, (H–J) Clade B and Southern World Melolonthinae (SWM) + Ablaberini (Abl) + Sericini, (K–M) Southern World Melolonthinae and Ablaberini + Sericini, and (N–P) Ablaberini and Sericini subgroups. The groups are color-coded in the phylogeny and the scatterplots. The percentage of variance explained by principal component 1 and 2 is given in the top right corner. Groups with more than 2 members are surrounded by a similarly colored hull. Black hulls border sister lineages for illustration of divergence. x-axis: PC1, y-axis: PC2.
Table 1.
F-values from non-parametric MANOVA of the complete sampling (excluding singletons) regarding 95% of total variation.
Table 2.
F-values from non-parametric MANOVA (Anderson 2001) of each subset (ss1–ss5, excluding singletons) regarding 95% of total variation.
Figure 4.
Lineage diversifications in morphospace.
Phylomorphospace projections of the molecular phylogenetic tree [31] for the sister clade subsets 1–5 (A–E) and the complete data set (F) showing the first two PC axes of the size-corrected (BBPM) data set.
Figure 5.
Correlated evolution of metacoxal length and the secondary metacoxal ostium.
(A) Reconstruction of relative metacoxal length in ancestral nodes of the molecular phylogeny [31]. The left hand arrow shows the internal branch where ancestral relative metacoxal length strongly increases and where the secondary ostium of metacoxa is closed by the medial apophysis [77]. The right hand arrow points to the clade of Hymenoplia and Paratriodonta (see text for explanation). (B) Chasmatopterus spec., metacoxa, dorsal view: secondary ostium open (arrow). (C) Hymenoplia castilliana, metacoxa, dorsal view: secondary ostium closed (arrow). The numbers in the legend correspond to the size-corrected values of metacoxal length.
Figure 6.
Morphological divergence in multivariate space and rates of morphological divergence.
(A) Molecular phylogenetic tree [31], trees with optimized branch lengths by (B) the uncorrected and (C) the size-corrected data set (BBPM), and rates of morphological divergence (multivariate standardized phylogenetic independent contrasts) for (D) the uncorrected and (E) the size-corrected data set mapped on the ultrametric phylogenetic tree showing relative divergence times. The tips of the molecular tree (A) are color-coded for feeding habits (ANT = anthophilous, COP = coprophagous, HERB = herbivorous, SFU = sap/fluid utilizers, NF = not feeding, SAP = saprophagous). Branches in (B) and (C) with significantly lower (blue) and higher (red) morphological rates of evolution are colored respectively. Background shading indicates clade affiliation.
Table 3.
Correlation between molecular and morphometric distance-matrices for specimens within one feeding type and the complete sampling.