Figure 1.
Maps of Switzerland showing the 2000 census proportion of (A) linguistic groups, (B) Catholics and Protestants (Mercator projection).
Figure 2.
Linguistic groups and topographical boundaries in Switzerland.
Maps of Switzerland showing (A) proportion of linguistic groups according to the 2000 census, (B) elevation within Switzerland, (C) overlay of linguistic groups onto a digital elevation model, and (D) topographical features including lakes (blue) and ridges extracted using edge detection (cyan). Comparison of calculated propensity (color bar) to violence between linguistic groups without (E) and with (F) the inclusion of topographical features as boundaries using a characteristic length scale of 24 km. Mercator projection, except C which is the Europe Albers projection. The distance scale is approximate.
Figure 3.
Effect of topographical boundaries on the propensity to linguistic conflict in Switzerland.
Maximum level of the propensity to violence between linguistic groups in Switzerland as calculated in the model as a function of the characteristic length scale. The calculation is performed with effect of topographical boundaries () and without effect of topographical boundaries (⧫).
Figure 4.
Religious groups and political boundaries in Switzerland.
Maps of Switzerland (Mercator projection) showing (A) proportion of Catholic (yellow) and Protestant (blue) according to the 2000 census, (B) cantons, (C) and (D) cantons (and Graubünden circles) that are majority Protestant and Catholic respectively, using the same color map as A. Comparison of propensity to violence between religious groups without (E) and with (F) the inclusion of administrative boundaries using a characteristic length scale of 24 km. Propensity value scale is shown by color bar. Canton abbreviations are GE: Genève, SO: Solothurn, ZG: Zug, VL: Valais, BS: Basel-Stadt, GL: Glarus, VD: Vaud, BL: Basel-Landschaft, TI: Ticino, NE: Neuchatel, AR: Aargau, GR: Graubünden, FR: Fribourg, LU: Lucerne, App-A: Appenzell-Ausserhoden, BE: Bern, OB: Obwalden, App-I: Appenzell-Innerrhoden, JU: Jura, NI: Nidwalden, StG: St. Gallen, UR: Uri, SF: Schaffhausen, TH: Thurgau, SZ: Schwyz, ZU: Zurich.
Figure 5.
Effect of political boundaries on the propensity to religious conflict in Switzerland.
Maximum level of the propensity to violence between religious groups in Switzerland as a function of characteristic length scale according to the model. Calculations are shown including the effect of canton boundaries and Graubünden circle boundaries (), including the effect of canton boundaries only (
), and without the effect of political boundaries (+). The dashed line represents the inferred threshold of propensity of violence in order for violence to occur.
Figure 6.
Ethnic groups, political borders, and topographical boundaries, in the former Yugoslavia.
(A) Map of the area of the former Yugoslavia showing administrative provinces. Propensity to violence calculated without (B) and with (C) administrative boundaries, using a characteristic length of 21 km. Locations of boundaries are shown on both plots as solid and dashed yellow lines respectively. Sites of reported violence are shown as red dots [18]. Spurious violence is predicted along the borders of Slovenia and Macedonia when boundaries are not included. Province labels are: SL: Slovenia, CR: Croatia, VO: Vojvodina*, B&H: Bosnia & Herzegovina, SR: Serbia, MN: Montenegro, KO: Kosovo*, MA: Macedonia. (*Autonomous administrative provinces of Serbia.).
Figure 7.
Sensitivity of the analysis for Switzerland to different treatment of unpopulated areas.
Level of predicted violence between linguistic groups in Switzerland using a characteristic length scale of 24 km. Each panel represents results for a different treatment of lakes and unpopulated land areas: (A) including lakes and unpopulated land areas as empty sites; (B) including as barriers the lakes of Leman and Neuchatel; (C) interpolating a composition for all unpopulated sites from neighboring sites.
Figure 8.
Sensitivity of the analysis to the topographical barrier threshold.
The maximum propensity to violence between linguistic groups in as the threshold gradient for topographical barriers varies: (A) Switzerland; (B) Yugoslavia (, left axis). For Yugoslavia the correlation of predicted with reported violence is also shown (+, right axis).
Figure 9.
Religious groups in Switzerland according to interpolated 1990 census.
Communes are colored according to proportion of Protestant (blue) and Catholic (yellow) as shown by color triangle.
Figure 10.
Effect of political boundaries on the propensity to religious conflict in Switzerland (1990 census).
Maximum level of the propensity to violence between religious groups in Switzerland as a function of characteristic length scale according to the model. Calculations are shown including the effect of canton boundaries and Graubünden circle boundaries (), including the effect of canton boundaries only (
), and without the effect of political boundaries (+). The dashed line represents the inferred threshold of propensity of violence in order for violence to occur. (Compare Fig. 5 for the 2000 census.).
Figure 11.
Calculated propensity to violence between linguistic groups in Switzerland.
(A) including the effect of topographical boundaries, (B) without the effect of topographical boundaries. Characteristic lengths increase from left to right, first row then second row, with the values 24, 32, 40, 48, 56 km.
Figure 12.
Calculated propensity to violence between religious groups in Switzerland (2000 census).
(A) with political boundaries, including both cantons and Graubünden circles, (B) including only the effect of canton boundaries, (C) without the effects of political boundaries. Characteristic lengths increases from left to right, first row then second row, with the values 24, 32, 40, 48, 56 km.
Figure 13.
Calculated propensity to violence between religious groups in Switzerland (1990 census).
As in Fig. 12 for the 1990 census. (A) with political boundaries, including both cantons and Graubünden circles, (B) including only the effect of canton boundaries, (B) without the effects of political boundaries. Characteristic lengths increases from left to right, first row then second row, with the values 24, 32, 40, 48, 56 km.
Figure 14.
Correlation of proximity maps of predicted and reported violence in Yugoslavia without topographical or political boundaries.
Results are shown as a function of threshold for violence divided by the maximum propensity for violence. Each curve is labelled by the characteristic length (km). (Compare with Figure S4.3 in Ref. [14].).
Figure 15.
Yugoslavia correlation analysis with administrative boundaries.
As in Fig. 14 but including the effects of administrative boundaries.
Figure 16.
Yugoslavia correlation analysis with topographical boundaries.
As in Fig. 14 but including topographical boundaries.
Figure 17.
Yugoslavia correlation analysis including Slovenia and Macedonia without boundaries.
As in Fig. 14 but including Slovenia and Macedonia.
Figure 18.
Yugoslavia correlation analysis including Slovenia and Macedonia with political boundaries.
As in Fig. 17 but including the effect of political boundaries.