Figure 1.
Known distribution of the different colour morphs of Vespa velutina across south-east Asia.
Figure 2.
Sampling of Vespa velutina across the distribution of the species.
Dotted populations are represented by less than 10 specimens.
Table 1.
Population sampling.
Figure 3.
Terminology of the studied body parts of Vespa velutina.
Characters coding variation of melanisation are in bold and numbered from one to 23. The twelfth character (spot at the apex of the hind-tibia) is not depicted.
Figure 4.
Modalities of colour characters.
Each colour character was depicted independently from the others. The ensemble of colour patterns gathered in a given illustration is thus not necessarily reflecting an actual coloration found in wild organisms. A. Variation of the four head characters in dorsal view. B. Variation of the four dorsal mesosomal characters. C. Variation of the lateral mesosoma character and the two anterior leg characters. The hind leg with a spot at the apex of the hind-tibia was not depicted. D. Variation of the seven dorsal metasomal characters. E. Variation of the four ventral metasomal characters.
Table 2.
List and descriptions of colour characters.
Figure 5.
ML tree and haplotype network of CO1 variability of the populations of V. velutina.
A - ML tree computed on CO1 sequences. Scale bar represents the expected mutation per site, node values are bootstrap supports. B - Haplotype network. White diamonds are the inferred mutations. C - Populations sampled. Size of triangles (A) and circles (C) are proportional to the related number of specimens having these haplotypes.
Figure 6.
Bayesian clustering of Vespa velutina specimens with microsatellite data.
Most recurrent results of Bayesian clustering on microsatellite data with increasing number of clusters K. These results were the clusters found in more than 60% of the analyses.
Figure 7.
Colour space of Vespa velutina specimens.
Two first dimensions of the colour space resulting from a correspondence analysis on melanisation described by two binary variables of the extreme light and dark coloration for each body part. Intermediate modalities were integrated using a fuzzy coding. Coloured spots described the mean values of each colour morphs (see Fig. 1). Colour forms: N = nigrithorax. K = karnyi. C = celebensis. V = velutina. U = flavitarsus. W = variana. T = timorensis. R = ardens. A = auraria. F = floresiana. D = divergens. P = pruthii. B = sumbana.
Figure 8.
Correlation between the colour variation of body parts.
Correlation matrix of the vectors of variation of light colour characters in the colour space (see Fig. 7). Blue marks indicate negative correlation among the two characters.
Figure 9.
Detailed dissimilarity of haplotypic and colour distances between individuals.
Correlation matrix between haplotypic distances (rows) and phenotypic distances (columns) with associated dendrograms. Correlation between distances of a same individual are marked with white squares. Under the hypothesis of similarity between the data, the trees should have the same structure and the individual correlations should approach one. Furthermore, high correlations should be organised in well delimited blocks corresponding to clusters. Haplotypic distances were computed on CO1 sequences and phenotypic distances were computed as the Euclidean distance between individuals in the colour space. Correlation coefficients ranged from −0.6 to 0.6. Dendrograms resulted from complete-linkage clusterings and should not be interpreted as evolutionary trees. Order of specimens differs in rows and columns. Populations: L = Lombok; F = Flores; J = Java; N = Nepal; S = Sulawesi; V = Vietnam; Y = Yunnan; Z = Zhejiang.
Table 3.
Results of pairwise RV tests between populations.
Figure 10.
Expression patterns of regulatory genes and variation of melanisation in metasomal segments.
A. Expression patterns of engrailed (en), wingless (wg) and decapentaplegic (dpp) on an abdominal tergum of Drosophila (modified from [75], after [72], [74]). B. Variation of melanisation of the third metasomal tergum of V. velutina. The blue dotted lines represent the part of the segment covered by the second tergum.