Figure 1.
a) Structure of xylem vessels in flowering plants and tracheids in conifers. Longer length of the vessels can provide pathways that can bypass filtration through pit membranes that decorate their circumference. b) Photograph of ∼1 cm diameter pine (pinus strobus) branch used in the present study. c) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of cut section showing tracheid cross section and lengthwise profile. Scale bar is 40 µm. d) SEM image showing pits and pit membranes. Scale bar is 20 µm. e) Pit membrane with inset showing a cartoon of the pit cross-section. The pit cover has been sliced away to reveal the permeable margo surrounding the impermeable torus. Arrow indicates observed hole-like structures that may be defects. The margo comprises radial spoke-like structures that suspend the torus, which are only barely visible overlaying the cell wall in the background. Scale bar is 1 µm. f) Dependence of area amplification, defined as the pit membrane area divided by the nominal filter area, on the tracheid aspect ratio L/D and fractional area α occupied by pit membranes.
Figure 2.
a) Construction of xylem filter. b) Effect of applied pressure on the water flux through the xylem filter. c) Hydrodynamic conductivity of the filter extracted at each measured pressure using the total filter cross-section area and thickness as defined by Equation 1. Error bars indicate ±S.D. for measurements on three different xylem filters.
Figure 3.
Filtration performance of the xylem filter.
a) Feed solution of a pigment dye before filtration (left), compared to the filtrate (right). b) Size distribution of the pigment particles in the feed and filtrate solutions measured by dynamic light scattering. c) Dependence of the rejection on the particle size estimated from the data in (b). d) Cross-section of the xylem filter after filtration. Scale is in centimeters and inches.
Figure 4.
Filtration of model bacteria by the xylem filter.
a) Concentrations of bacteria in the feed and filtrate solutions. Inset shows fluorescence images of the two solutions. Scale bar is 200 µm. Error bars indicate ±S.D. for experiments performed on three different xylem filters. b) Fluorescence image of xylem filter cross-section showing accumulation of bacteria over the margo pit membranes. Scale bar is 20 µm. c) Low-magnification fluorescence image shows that bacteria are trapped at the bottoms of tracheids within the first few millimeters of the top surface. Scale bar is 400 µm. Arrow indicates top surface of the xylem filter and also the direction of flow during filtration. Autofluorescence of the xylem tissue also contributes to the fluorescence signal in (b) and (c). d), e) SEM images showing bacteria accumulated on the margo pit membranes after filtration. Scale bars are 10 µm and 2 µm, respectively.