Figure 1.
Topographic map of Peru with valleys and provenance of Mochica and modern domestic camelids.
Figure 2.
Central Andes ecozones and altitudinal environmental variations.
Cross-section of the western slopes of the Central Andes with the main ecological zones considered in the study with expected trends in variations in environmental conditions and δ13C, δ15N and δ18O measured in domestic camelid tissues.
Figure 3.
Tomb 48(Huacas de Moche) with artefacts and domestic camelid offerings.
Table 1.
Origin, context and individual age of modern and archaeological and modern domestic camelids.
Table 2.
δ13C (‰ VPDB) and δ15N (‰ AIR) values of bone collagen and δ13C and δ18O values (‰ VPDB) of bone structural carbonate of modern and archaeological domestic camelids.
Table 3.
Summary of δ13C and δ18O values (‰ VPDB) of enamel structural carbonate of molars of archaeological and modern camelids.
Figure 4.
Permanent M3 molar from specimen EBT2–1998 from El Brujo showing the series of enamel samples (grooves) that have been drilled along the highest lobe of the crown, from the apex to the enamel-root junction.
Figure 5.
Isotopic composition of bone collagen.
Plot of bone collagen δ13C and δ15N values of archaeological (El Brujo) and modern highland domestic camelids from Tocra and Quiruvilca, compared to the range of variations (represented by dashed lines) of modern specimens, compiled by Thornton et al [34]. The proportion of C4 in the diet was reconstructed using mean estimated pre-industrial δ13C values of pure-C3 and pure-C4 feeders.
Figure 6.
Isotopic composition of bone structural carbonate.
Plot of δ13C and δ18O values (‰ VPDB) of bone structural carbonate of archaeological and modern highland domestic camelids. The proportion of C4 in the diet was reconstructed using estimated mean pre-industrial δ13C values of pure-C3 and pure-C4 feeders. Estimated ranges of δ18O values for animals raised in the three ecozones are represented by rectangles.
Figure 7.
Mean isotopic composition of enamel structural carbonate.
Plot of mean δ13C and δ18O values (‰ VPDB) of enamel structural carbonate for all teeth (molars) of archaeological and modern highland domestic camelids. The proportion of C4 in the diet was reconstructed using estimated mean pre-industrial δ13C values of pure-C3 and pure-C4 feeders. Estimated ranges of δ18O values for animals raised in the three ecozones are represented by rectangles.
Figure 8.
Intra-tooth isotopic composition of enamel structural carbonate of modern camelids.
Intra-tooth variations in δ13C and δ18O values (‰ VPDB) measured along the molar crowns of modern highland domestic camelids and estimation of the contribution of C3 and C4 plants during crown growth. For each specimen, the left graph is for the M1 molar (except for Areq-3), the middle graph for the M2 molar and the right graph for the M3 molar. On each graph, the left axis refers to δ13Cenamel values and the right to δ18Oenamel values.
Figure 9.
Intra-tooth isotopic composition of enamel structural carbonate of Uhle Platform camelids.
Intra-tooth variations in δ13C and δ18O values (‰ VPDB) measured along the molar crowns of archaeological and modern highland domestic camelids and estimation of the contribution of C3 and C4 plants during crown growth. For each specimen, the left graph is for the M1 molar, the middle graph for the M2 molar and the right graph for the M3 molar. On each graph, the left axis refers to δ13Cenamel values and the right to δ18Oenamel values.
Figure 10.
Intra-tooth isotopic composition of enamel structural carbonate of El Brujo camelids.
Intra-tooth variations in δ13C and δ18O values (‰ VPDB) measured along the molar crowns of archaeological and modern highland domestic camelids and estimation of the contribution of C3 and C4 plants during crown growth. For each specimen, the left graph is for the M1 molar, the middle graph for the M2 molar and the right graph for the M3 molar. On each graph, the left axis refers to δ13Cenamel values and the right to δ18Oenamel values.
Figure 11.
Reconstruction of diachronic changes in the contribution of C4 plants to camelid diet.
Dietary contribution of C4 plants over the first years of life of specimen EBE1-1995 and in the long term is estimated by the combined analysis of enamel (δ13Cenamel) from the three molars and the bulk analysis of collagen (δ13Ccol) and structural carbonate (δ13Cbone) from bone.