Figure 1.
Study framework. DPSIR was used to analyze the complex relationships established between ecosystems and human systems in Spain. Modified from [20].
Figure 2.
Diagram of a conceptual structured equation model describing the potential relationships between the components of the DPSIR framework.
Latent variables (which are the components of the DPSIR framework) are showed in ellipses, while manifest variables (which are the indicators used) are presented in rectangles. (RLI = Red List Index; IAS = invasive alien species; GDP = Gross Domestic Product; R&D = research and development; ES = ecosystem services).
Table 1.
Trend of biodiversity status (particularly vertebrates) based on the Red List Index [55] and ecosystem services using national scale indicators (classification based on the CICES system [56]).
Table 2.
Trend of human wellbeing indicators divided into its five dimensions.
Table 3.
Trend of response options indicators to determine the efforts performed by institutions in Spain in relation to environmental issues.
Table 4.
Trend of drivers and pressures indicators to determine the main causes and effects on biodiversity and ecosystems in Spain.
Figure 3.
Aggregate indices for each of the DPSIR components evaluated.
(a) Biodiversity based on Red List Index of vertebrates, (b) Ecosystem services based on ten indicators of provisioning services, seven indicators of regulating services and seven in cultural services (four associated more with urban demand and three with rural people), (c) Human wellbeing using twelve indicators (two for material dimension and ten for other non-material dimensions) (d) Responses options using five indicators related to conservation strategies, social participation and market initiatives (e) Drivers (indirect drivers of change) based on ten indicators related to the demographic, economic, cultural, sociopolitical and scientific aspects (f) Pressures (direct drivers of change) based on eight indicators related to land use, climate change, over-exploitation, pollution and invasive alien species. The data are standardized according to the arithmetic mean corresponding to the time series of 1960 through 2010. The shading indicates the variability of the data with a 95% confidence interval for each of the aggregated indices. For details information regarding individual indicators, see Table S1–S6.
Figure 4.
Structured equation model results indicating the relationships between latent variables.
Width of arrows is proportional to the strength of path coefficients and numbers near arrow lines denote the standardized regression coefficients. Significance levels are as follows: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01 and ***p≤0.001. (ES = ecosystem services).
Table 5.
Results from the SEM performed.
Figure 5.
Integrative results from conceptual framework.
It represents trend evolution of aggregate indices and relationship among the DPSIR components based on SEM results *The arrow between human wellbeing and responses is with dotted line because it was not analyzed in the study. (Inspired in [35]).