Figure 1.
Inhibition of mineralization by phosphorylated MEPE-ASARM peptide in a 3D collagen/tooth slice culture model. A:
Schematic of the 3D culture model. Stem cells from human deciduous exfoliated teeth (SHEDs) were obtained for cell cultures studies from the pulp of caries-free human third molars. Passaged cells (106 SHEDs) seeded into a type I collagen gel scaffold were applied to a human tooth slice with a pulp chamber cavity to mimick the tooth/dentin environment, all of which were supported peripherally by a steel wire mesh to minimize collagen gel contraction. B: Calcium content in the cell/matrix layer determined by flame atomic absorption spectrometry of cultures maintained in NM or M conditions in the absence or presence of p-ASARM or np-ASARM at a concentration of 5, 10 or 20 µM for 21 days. Calcium content significantly decreased in the presence of 20 µM of p-ASARM while the nonphosphorylated form of the peptide had no effect on calcium content of the cultures. C-D: SHED cultures were maintained in nonmineralizing (NM) or mineralizing (M) conditions (see Materials and Methods) in the absence or presence of 20 µM phosphorylated (p-ASARM) or nonphosphorylated (np-ASARM) peptide for 21 days. Mineralized nodules in the extracellular matrix were clearly visible by light microscopy after von Kossa staining in the M and M+np-ASARM. Quantification of mineralized nodules (D) shows that they were essentially undetectable in presence of the p-ASARM peptide, whereas about 40 nodules were counted per slice in the M and M+np-ASARM samples. n = 3, error bars +/− SD, ** indicates significant difference (p<0.01) relative to mineralizing condition without peptide.
Table 1.
Primer design for RT-PCR analysis.
Table 2.
Clinical and biological characteristics of the patients with XLH at the time of tooth extraction.
Figure 2.
Light and electron microscopy of the cells, matrix and mineral in 3D SHED cell cultures.
SHED cell cultures maintained in nonmineralizing (NM) or mineralizing (M) conditions in the absence or presence of 20 µM of either phosphorylated (p-ASARM) or nonphosphorylated (np-ASARM) ASARM peptide for 21 days were visualized by light microscopy and by scanning (SEM) and transmission (TEM) electron microscopy. A,B: SEM reveals SHEDs (arrows) well integrated into the collagen scaffold. Mineralization of the cultures appears as nodules within the collagen scaffold (arrowheads) only in the M and the M+np-ASARM conditions. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) for compositional microanalysis of the nodules (performed at the white square) shows major spectral peaks for calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) with an acquired Ca/P ratio of 1.67+/−0.05 in both mineralizing conditions where nodules appeared. C: Light microscopy (left panel) and TEM (center and right panel) of the mineralized cultures (M and M+np-ASARM). Mineralized nodules (black box, left panel) are often in close proximity to the SHED cells, and consist of aggregates of multiple, smaller mineralization nodules (arrowheads) and occasional mineralized collagen fibrils (white box center panel, and right panel).
Figure 3.
Effect of MEPE-ASARM peptides on type I collagen and tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase expression. A:
Quantitative real-time PCR (as described in Materials and Methods) for type I collagen and tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase expression in 3D cultures of SHEDs maintained in nonmineralizing (NM) or mineralizing (M) conditions in the absence or presence of either 20 µM phosphorylated (p-ASARM) or nonphosphorylated (np-ASARM) ASARM peptide for 21 days. mRNA expression levels were upregulated from day 7 to day 14 in M, M+p-ASARM and M+np-ASARM conditions and, at day 21, returned to a level comparable to that of the NM condition, except for alkaline phosphatase which remained high in the M+p-ASARM condition. n = 3, error bars +/− SD, * indicates significant difference (p<0.05) relative to NM condition. B: Sirius Red staining of collagen in deciduous tooth sections from a 3-year-old male XLH patient (upper right panel), permanent tooth sections from a 15-year-old female XLH patient (bottom right panel) and control patient (upper left panel) revealing an intact collagen distribution only where dentin has mineralized in the form of characteristic calcospherites (arrows), and not in the interglobular spaces (asterisks) in the dentin where mineralization is typically impaired in XLH and where matrix degradation occurs. Sirius Red staining of normal dentin (right panel) is generally homogeneous across the tubular dentin. Similarly, von Kossa staining counterstained with toluidine blue in the same XLH permanent tooth sections (bottom left panel) show lack of fusion of calcospherites (arrows) with large non-mineralized interglobular spaces (asterisks) in the dentin. o: odontoblast. pd: predentin. d: dentin. p: pulp.
Figure 4.
Effect of MEPE-ASARM peptides on osteocalcin, DSPP and MEPE expression.
SHED cell cultures were maintained in nonmineralizing (NM) or mineralizing (M) conditions in the absence or presence of 20 µM of either phosphorylated (p-ASARM) or nonphosphorylated (np-ASARM) ASARM peptide for 21 days. Quantitative real-time PCR at day 7, 14 and 21, and Western blotting at day 21, for osteocalcin, DSPP/DSP and MEPE were performed. A,B: Osteocalcin and DSPP/DSP expression are induced under the M condition both at the mRNA and protein levels. This induction is reduced in the presence of both the p-ASARM and np-ASARM peptides. C: mRNA and Western blot analysis for MEPE reveal increased expression of MEPE in all mineralizing conditions from day 7 to day 14 (expression was not detectable at baseline). At day 21, MEPE expression was still strongly upregulated in the M+p-ASARM condition. n = 3, error bars +/− SD, * indicates significant difference (p<0.05) relative to the mineralizing condition without peptides (M).
Figure 5.
Immunohistochemical detection of osteocalcin, DSP and MEPE after treatment with MEPE-ASARM peptides.
SHED cell cultures were maintained in nonmineralizing (NM) or mineralizing (M) conditions in the absence or presence of 20 µM of either phosphorylated (p-ASARM) or nonphosphorylated (np-ASARM) ASARM peptide for 21 days. Immunohistochemistry for osteocalcin, DSP and MEPE was performed on methyl methacrylate sections of 21-day cultures. Osteocalcin immunostaining (top row) is strong in SHEDs (arrows) and nodules (arrowheads) in the M and M+p-ASARM conditions. Immunohistochemistry for DSP shows strong staining in mineralized nodules in both the M and M+np-ASARM conditions. MEPE immunostaining is found in SHEDs and nodules in mineralizing conditions the (M and M+np-ASARM conditions) but is particularly strong in the cultures treated with p-ASARM that do not mineralize (M+p-ASARM). The images presented are representative of all sections examined.
Figure 6.
Effect of MEPE-ASARM peptides on reparative dentin mineralization and MEPE expression in a rat dentin/pulp wound model.
This in vivo data is from rats sacrificed at 1 month after implantation of agarose beads soaked in either p-ASARM or np-ASARM, or buffer (control), into the pulp of the first upper molar. A: MEPE derived p-ASARM impairs reparative dentin mineralization and enhances MEPE expression. Micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) sections (top row) show mineralization (arrows) occurring in the pulp chamber as a reparative process (dentin bridge formation) near the pulp injury (white dashed box outline). The dentin bridge appears thinner and irregular with large voids (mineralization defects) in the p-ASARM treatment when compared to the control and np-ASARM treatment. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining of paraffin histology sections (second row) taken from the region outlined by the white dashed boxes show the irregular nature of the dentin bridge (db) in the vicinity of the beads (asterisks) soaked in p-ASARM as compared to the control and the np-ASARM treated wounds. Immunohistochemistry for MEPE (third row) in the region demarcated by the black dashed box outlines shows an accumulation of MEPE (arrows) in nonmineralized spaces of the reparative dentin bridge only in the case p-ASARM treatment. Immunohistochemistry for MEPE (bottom row) in the region demarcated by the black box outlines shows strong MEPE staining of cells (odontoblasts) secreting the dentin bridge. In control and np-ASARM-treated samples, the dentin bridge appears homogenous and with no or weak staining for MEPE. B: Quantification of the pulp volume (to indirectly measure mineralization volume “pulp fill”) was performed by micro-CT of the bead-implanted molars. Semi-automatic segmentation (red area) of the pulp was performed from micro-CT serial sections in order to calculate the global volume of the pulp. The volume of the pulp from the p-ASARM-treated molars was significantly higher when compared to the control and np-ASARM treatment suggesting that mineralization in the reparative dentin process was impaired by p-ASARM. * indicates significant difference (p<0.05) relative to control.
Figure 7.
Summary of the role of the MEPE-derived ASARM peptide in the etiology of tooth dentin abnormalities in XLH patients.
A: SIBLING proteins containing the ASARM peptide are processed by a multitude of proteolytic enzymes, some of which may release the ASARM peptide or larger protein fragments containing the ASARM peptide into the extracellular matrix (ECM). ASARM and ASARM-containing peptides are inhibitory for mineralization, binding directly to hydroxyapatite (HAP) mineral crystals in bones and teeth. In normal conditions, neutralizing PHEX cleavage of ASARM releases extracellular matrices from this inhibition and mineralization proceeds appropriately. B: In XLH tooth dentin, inactivating mutations in the PHEX gene result in nonfunctional PHEX enzyme that allows HAP crystal-binding, ASARM-containing peptides to accumulate in the dentin thus inhibiting tooth mineralization (pathway 1). Normal PHEX also protects full-length MEPE from cleavage by proteases (cathepsin B), thereby preventing release of mineralization-inhibiting ASARM. In XLH, excessive cleavage of MEPE by proteases (in the absence of functional PHEX) to release the inhibitory ASARM peptide might also contribute to the impaired mineralization of dentin. Finally, ASARM accumulation in XLH may impair dentinogenesis by decreasing odontoblast differentiation and downregulating genes encoding for secreted ECM proteins (pathways 2 and 3), while increasing MEPE expression (pathway 4) which in turn would further exacerbate the XLH hypomineralization tooth phenotype.