Figure 1.
Percentage (%) of choices in which cognitive control was selected during the free-choice period as a function of expected monetary rewards. Error bars represent one (within-subject) standard error of the mean based on Loftus and Masson [69].
Figure 2.
Trial Structure for the fMRI Experiment.
After a variable duration fixation cross, an instruction cue signaled the currently relevant rules (profile of faces = male/female rule; book = abstract/concrete rule) and whether or not to expect a monetary reward (blue vase = no money; bills = 25¢). This was followed by a variable duration delay period and then a word or face stimulus, during which subjects made a button response. Finally, a screen revealed whether money had been earned on that trial and cumulative winnings. On key trials, a second instruction cue appeared before the stimulus. Across the two instruction cues, we varied whether there was repetition of the rules, expected reward, both, or neither.
Figure 3.
Regions Showing Repetition Enhancement for Repetition of a Specific Rule-Outcome Pairing (Z>2.57, p<.05 FWE cluster corrected for the whole-brain).
A. Right lateral view showing regions of the LPFC exhibiting this effect. B. Activation time-course for the IFS, IFJ, and posterior DLPFC time-locked to the onset of the second instruction. The color scale denotes t-values. Nov = novel, rep = repeated. Error bars represent one (within-subject) standard error of the mean based on Loftus and Masson [69].
Table 1.
Regions exhibiting fMRI-adaptation for repetition of rules and reward.
Figure 4.
Regions Exhibiting Functional Connectivity with the IFS Across the Entire Time-Course (Z>2.57, p<.05 FWE cluster corrected for the whole-brain).
Rule areas (blue arrows) include bilateral lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC), anterior mid-cingulate cortex/dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (aMCC/DMPFC), posterior middle temporal gyrus (pMTG), and intraparietal sulcus (IPS). Reward areas (red arrows) include rostral anterior and posterior cingulate cortices (rACC, PCC), orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), caudate/nucleus accumbens (NAcc), and insula. The color scale denotes t-values, and the numerical values above the images correspond to MNI coordinates. For axial and coronal slices, the right hemisphere is on the right side of the image. LH = left hemisphere, RH = right hemisphere.
Table 2.
Regions exhibiting significant functional connectivity with the IFS.