Figure 1.
Outline of behavioral paradigms.
A). The stimulus panels used in pro- and antisaccade trials. Panels drawn on the background in this figure are presented first. Instructed eye position as a reaction to each stimulus is indicated in the panels. In reality the targets were presented on a black background. B). Timelines with important events for all 3 tasks. For task 1 and 2, the solid black lines indicate the location of the eye movement target/fixation dot, and the gray solid lines indicate eye position. Colored circles indicate pro and antisaccade cues, and the black cross in the scheme for task 2 indicates a fixation epoch. For further details see the methods section.
Figure 2.
The field of view used for fMRI acquisition during task performance, indicated as a blue translucent square overlaid on a sagittal slice through the anatomical scan of one of the participants. Care was taken that the striatum, midbrain, FEF and SEF were in the field of view. In between functional runs, the angulation was checked regularly and adjusted if required.
Table 1.
Details on the observed clusters of activation for contrasts from all three tasks are presented.
Figure 3.
Single participant activation maps.
The activation patterns (T-maps) are presented for a representative participant. In the left column (A), a coronal and 2 axial slices are shown with activation during saccades in darkness vs rest in red (task 3) and antisaccades as compared to prosaccades in blue (task 1). In the right column (B) the same slices are shown again with activation for saccades in darkness vs rest in red (task 3) and visual activation during fixation vs rest in green (task 2). Activation maps are overlaid on slices from the normalized anatomical scan of the same subject. In the upper 2 slices activation in the FEF and SEF can be seen, and in the lower slice a zoomed in section of the striatum where saccade activation is observed in the putamen. MNI coordinates of the slices is given in upper right hand side of each slice (y-coordinate for coronal slice, z-coordinate for axial slices). Activation is thresholded at T = 3.5. Slices are displayed in neurological convention (left = left). Labels: SFS: superior frontal sulcus; CS: central sulcus; PUT: Putamen; CN: Caudate Nucleus.
Figure 4.
Overview of group activation patterns (T-maps) for three tasks. The figure was split into panels A and B as combining activation overlays obscured too much detail due to overlap. Panel A at the left shows event related anti vs prosaccade activation in blue and saccades in darkness activation in red. Panel B at the right shows activation for visual stimulation vs rest in green and again for saccades in darkness vs rest in red. Overlap is rendered in yellow. In the upper row of panel A and B group activation is rendered in 3D on top of a high-quality individual (MNI normalized) skull stripped brain, only to indicate the location of activation with respect to the main sulci and gyri. In the right 3D rendering in panels A and B the anterior upper right part of the brain is cut out to show activation in deeper sulci and along the medial wall of the cortex. In the lower rows activation is overlaid on selected 2D slices through the T1 weighted normalized anatomical scan averaged over all participants, providing a more realistic impression of anatomical precision after normalization. Slice MNI coordinates are given for each slice at the upper right hand side (z-coordinate for axial slices, y for coronal and x for sagittal slices). Activation for all renderings is thresholded at T = 3.5, implying that also some stronger trends are displayed for the sake of completeness. See table 1 for an overview of statistics. Slices are displayed in neurological convention (left = left). Labels are indicating regions of interest or sulci. Lateral and medial FEF (frontal eye fields): two foci activated during saccades in darkness vs rest; antisaccade FEF: preferentially activated for antisaccades vs prosaccades (note that FEF label is only used for sake of simplicity; lateral activations are probably not part of the human FEF homologue). SEF: supplementary eye fields; PUT: Putamen; CS: central sulcus; SFS: superior frontal sulcus; CS: central sulcus.
Figure 5.
The average peri-stimulus-time-histograms (PSTHs; BOLD time courses) are shown for several ROIs: the clusters activated for saccades in darkness vs rest in left and right precentral sulcus/premotor cortex (‘lateral and medial FEF’) and the left and right putamen and SEF, and the left and right clusters in the FEF more active for anti as compared to prosaccades (‘antisaccade FEF’). The aforementioned group activation patterns from which the ROIs were taken are depicted in figure 4. PSTHs were averaged over voxels in the ROIs and then participants, and aligned at target stimulus onset. Saccade onset typically follows within 300 ms, therefore PSTHs aligned at saccade onset would have been largely identical. Data for the left hemisphere are given in the left panels and data for the right hemisphere in the right panels. In each panel, average PSTHs are presented for pro and antisaccades (gray squares and black circles) to the left and right (solid and dashed lines with open and solid symbols). The unit on the ordinate is global % signal change. The absolute magnitude of this unit is not directly meaningful and should not be compared over regions, as averaging took place over different numbers of voxel per region and within different brain areas. Absolute BOLD measures are known to vary considerably over regions. Differences between conditions within a region can be compared. Except the bilateral putamen, the right ‘lateral FEF’ and left SEF, peak activation in all ROIs was significantly larger for antisaccades as compared to prosaccades (p<0.05). The left SEF exhibited larger responses for antisaccades at trend level, T(12) = 1.59;p = 0.06. Further tests on single timepoints of interest are presented in the text of the results section.
Figure 6.
Two axial slices with group activation patterns (T-maps) for the second GLM analysis are shown comparing antisaccade cue induced vs prosaccade cue induced activation (from task 1) in blue. Data is overlaid on the T1 weighted anatomical scan averaged over all participants. The z-coordinates (MNI space) is given for each slice at the upper right hand side. Activation is thresholded at T = 3.5. Slices are displayed in neurological convention (left = left).
Figure 7.
Step-wise results of DTI analysis.
The subsequent steps in DTI fiber analysis are outlined in 4 panels. In panel A, the normalized fiber tracts originating from the left and right putamen and caudate nucleus are rendered in blue for one participant together with orthogonal slices from the normalized T1 weighted scan. The manually segmented ROIs for the caudate nucleus and putamen are also rendered in red. Panel B shows a 3D representation of the average probability (over participants) for a voxel to be connected to the caudate nucleus (in red) or putamen (in blue) or both (purple). In yellow the zones activated for antisaccades and in green the zone activated for saccades in darkness are rendered. For each participant, it was then investigated which fibers from the 4 fiber bundles originating in the left and right putamen and caudate nucleus were connected to the most important cortical fMRI activation clusters observed in 4. See panel C for example results from individual participants: fibers connecting the caudate nucleus and SEF are shown in the left rendering, fibers connecting the putamen and antisaccade zone in the FEF in the right rendering, and the lower left rendering shows fibers connecting the areas activated for saccades in darkness (‘lateral and medial FEF’) with the putamen. The manually segmented caudate nucleus and putamen are also shown in yellow and green, respectively. Panels C is presented in order to illustrate the fiber processing steps, and are not necessarily representative. Panel D shows for how many participants (out of 12) regions were connected at all. ‘FEF motor’ refers to zones along the precentral sulcus activated for saccades in darkness (that is, ‘lateral FEF’ and ‘medial FEF’ taken together), ‘FEF anti’ refers to zones activated for antisaccades vs prosaccades. Line thickness also indicates the number of subjects with connections. The diagram is overlayed onto a blurred slice from figure 4, only to roughly indicate the location.