Figure 1.
Selected examples of different genera and species of parmelioid lichens.
A. Parmelina tiliacea, one of the most common lichens in the Mediterranean basin. B. Parmotrema hypoleucinum, endemic of the southwestern Mediterranean Region, occurring in warm and humid areas. C. Melanelixia glabra occurs from southwestern Europe to eastern Russia. D. Parmelia sulcata, a common species from cold to temperate regions of both Hemispheres. E. Flavoparmelia soredians occurs in warm and humid areas of temperate regions of both Hemispheres. F. Xanthoparmelia conspersa, one of the most widespread species of macrolichens growing on acid rocks in temperate areas of both Hemipheres, excluding Australia and South Africa. The distribution areas after Nimis [105]. All photographs were taken in the field. Scale = 1 cm.
Figure 2.
Substitution rates for the three loci (mtSSU, nuLSU, RPB1) of the main clades in Parmelioid.
Dots represent mean rates and bars cover the 95% highest posterior density (HPD). Units: substitution/site/year. Abbreviations for the Parmelioid clades are listed in Table 1.
Table 1.
Substitution rates of the main clades of parmelioid lichens obtained in the independent BEAST analyses for each locus.
Figure 3.
Lecanoromycetes tree indicating the position of the detailed chronogram of Parmeliaceae shown in Figure 4.
The chronogram was estimated from a partitioned data set of three loci (mtSSU, nuLSU, RPB1) using BEAST. The calibration point (C1) was set at the divergence node of Lecanoromycetes and Chaethothyriomycetidae.
Figure 4.
Divergence time chronogram focusing on Parmeliaceae.
The chronogram was estimated as described in the legend for figure 3. Two calibration points based on fossil assignation are marked as C2 (crown node of Parmelia) and C3 (crown node of Alectoria). C3* is the alternative calibration with the Alectoria fossil assigned to the alectorioid crown. The Parmelioid group is highlighted by the grey box. Numbers inside circles refer to divergence nodes between the main clades. Grey bars show the 95% highest posterior density intervals (HPD). Detailed ages are given in Table 2.
Table 2.
Estimated ages and substitution rates of the most recent common ancestors (MRCA) for the main clades obtained with partitioned BEAST analyses using three calibration points.
Table 3.
Estimated ages of the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of the main clades obtained in the alternative BEAST analyses.
Figure 5.
Comparison of divergence ages of parmelioid clades and the separation of the Southern Hemisphere landmasses.
Dots represent node ages and bars cover the 95%HPD. The geological area cladogram representing the relationships among the Southern Hemisphere landmasses is based on Sanmartín & Ronquist [106].
Figure 6.
Chronogram of parmelioid genera during Cenozoic time and its relationship to global temperature changes.
The global temperature changes obtained from the deep-sea oxygen and carbon isotype proxies after Zachos et al [107].The major diversification events of parmelioid lichens are mapped onto the temperature curve: the square represents the parmelioid most recent common ancestor (MCRA), circles indicate splits of major lineages (numbers in the tree refer to those in Table 2), and diamonds the radiation of genera. Climatic events: A. Early Eocene Climatic Optimum. B. Oi-1 Glaciation. C. Late Oligocene Warming. D. Mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum.