Figure 1.
Modelling procedure, showing the Carnegie specimen.
From left to right, top to bottom these show the scanned, reconstructed, and straightened skeleton; the skeleton with elliptical hoops that define fleshy boundaries; the air spaces representing pharynx, sinuses, lungs and other airways including air sacs; and the final meshed reconstruction used for mass and COM estimates.
Table 1.
Tyrannosaur specimens used in this study, with specimen numbers and colloquial names given.
Figure 2.
From left to right for each specimen: 3D scan of skeleton (not shown for Jane due to copyright issues), minimal model, and maximal model. Not to scale.
Figure 3.
See Figure 2, but skeleton scans/models are ordered from top to bottom.
Figure 4.
Table 2.
Bone dimensions for the five tyrannosaur specimens.
Table 3.
Skeletal dimensions as explained in the text.
Table 4.
Body segment masses for the five tyrannosaur specimens.
Table 5.
Limb segment masses for the five tyrannosaur specimens.
Table 6.
Body mass (all segments) and center of mass (COM) values shown for the five tyrannosaur specimens.
Table 7.
Whole body masses and center of mass (COM) positions for the five tyrannosaur specimens.
Figure 5.
Muscle mass reconstruction method for M. caudofemoralis longus (see Methods); Carnegie specimen depicted.
Dorsal and right lateral views are shown on top, and in the bottom row are caudal views of the right femur and then caudal vertebrae (8th and 17th). Red shaded volumes are the M. caudofemoralis longus reconstruction. Note a small space for M. caudofemoralis brevis (not reconstructed) is left around the ilium/sacrum and lateral to the CFL insertion.
Table 8.
M. caudofemoralis longus (CFL) muscle masses for the five tyrannosaur specimens.
Table 9.
Estimates of extensor muscle masses (total acting about each joint in one hindlimb) for tyrannosaur specimens.
Figure 6.
Adjusted growth curve (mass in kg as a function of age in years) for Tyrannosaurus rex.
Filled circles represent our mass estimates derived from digital modelling; squares represent data points generated using Developmental Mass Extrapolation [42]. The red line represents the best fit curve for modelled data; the black one is for the DME estimate. Stippled lines represent the 95% confidence intervals for the model-based estimates. The MOR specimen is treated as being 16 years old in this plot (see text).
Figure 7.
Comparison of torso/body dimensions for the four large Tyrannosaurus rex specimens.
Linear measurements from our digital models show how the gleno-acetabular distance (GAD) is anomalously short in the MOR specimen and the chest is anomalously wider in the Sue and Carnegie specimens. Otherwise all four specimens compare fairly well, considering that the Sue specimen is known to be somewhat larger.
Table 10.
Muscle and limb masses in select amniotes.