Figure 1.
Geographic location of sampling sites.
For the lowland populations (LLaP) each of the four sites is shown with a separate symbol while for the alpine populations single symbol is shown for each region (HTM and Pyr) where the sites were situated close to each other.
Table 1.
Probability of clonal identity in alpine (HTM and Pyr) and lowland (LLaP) populations where identical microsatellite genotypes (MLMGs) were encountered.
Table 2.
Summary of sequence polymorphism for mtDNA ND5 gene.
Figure 2.
Principal Coordinate Analysis of microsatellite data.
The first two principal coordinate axes are shown that represent 24% and 14% of the variation. K-means groups are represented with polygons surrounding isolates from Pyr lakes (green triangles) and ponds (green squares), from HTM (red circles), and from LLaP (blue diamonds).
Figure 3.
Maximum likelihood phylogeny of mtDNA haplotypes.
Statistical support for the major clades is expressed as the percentage bootstrap proportions of 1000 replicates and as the SH-like approximate likelihood ratio probabilities.
Figure 4.
Phylogenetic relationships between obligate and cyclic parthenogens.
The dendrogram of European mtDNA haplotypes is as in Figure 3 (branch lengths not to scale), with branches color-coded to indicate where the haplotype was found in an obligate parthenogenetic or cyclic parthenogenetic population or in a population with mixed or uncertain reproductive mode (see Discussion).
Table 3.
Genetic distances between alpine (HTM and Pyr) and lowland (LLaP) populations based on mtDNA sequences (ND5 gene) and microsatellite data (MS).
Figure 5.
Restriction map of the mtDNA ND5 amplicon.
The ApoI site at position 344 distinguishes species [11] of the tenebrosa group (European Daphnia pulicaria, EuroPC; and D. tenebrosa, TENE) from those of the pulicaria group (polar, PPC; western, WPC; and eastern D. pulicaria, EPC; D. middendorffiana, MIDD; and panarctic D. pulex, PanPX). Some lineages yield short fragments under 100 bp in size difficult to visualize using agarose gels but this does not affect scoring the individuals as either tenebrosa or pulicaria group.