Consistency and flexibility of character in free-ranging male African elephants across time, age, and social contexts

• Caitlin E. O’Connell-Rodwell ,

  Contributed equally to this work with: Caitlin E. O’Connell-Rodwell, Jodie L. Berezin

  Roles Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing

  * E-mail: ceoconnell@stanford.edu (CEO-R); jlberezin@gmail.com (JLB)

  Affiliations Center for Conservation Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America, Harvard University Center for the Environment, Cambridge, MA, United States of America, Utopia Scientific, San Diego, CA, United States of America

  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2532-9326

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• Jodie L. Berezin ,

  Contributed equally to this work with: Caitlin E. O’Connell-Rodwell, Jodie L. Berezin

  Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Project administration, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

  * E-mail: ceoconnell@stanford.edu (CEO-R); jlberezin@gmail.com (JLB)

  Affiliations Utopia Scientific, San Diego, CA, United States of America, Department of Biological Sciences, Clark Science Center, Smith College, Northampton, MA, United States of America

  https://orcid.org/0009-0001-0921-1002

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• Colleen Kinzley,

  Roles Investigation

  Affiliation Conservation Society of California, Oakland Zoo, Oakland, CA, United States of America

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• Patrick T. Freeman,

  Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – review & editing

  Affiliation Conservation Science Partners, Truckee, CA, United States of America

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• Monica N. Sandri,

  Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing

  Affiliation Geography Graduate Group, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, United States of America

  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3998-433X

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• Dustin Kieschnick,

  Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing – review & editing

  Affiliation Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States of America

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• Timothy C. Rodwell,

  Roles Funding acquisition, Investigation, Resources

  Affiliations Utopia Scientific, San Diego, CA, United States of America, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States of America

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• Mariana Abarca,

  Roles Formal analysis, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing

  Affiliation Department of Biological Sciences, Clark Science Center, Smith College, Northampton, MA, United States of America

  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6944-2574

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• Virginia Hayssen

  Roles Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing

  Affiliation Department of Biological Sciences, Clark Science Center, Smith College, Northampton, MA, United States of America

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