About the Authors

Laurel Kroo

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America

Anesta Kothari

Roles Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Visualization, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America

Melanie Hannebelle

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Software, Validation, Writing – original draft

Affiliations Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), School of Engineering, Lausanne, Switzerland, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), School of Life Sciences, Lausanne, Switzerland

George Herring

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America, Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America

Thibaut Pollina

Roles Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Validation, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America

Ray Chang

Roles Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America

Dominic Peralta

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Stellar Design LLC, San Mateo, CA, United States of America

Samhita P. Banavar

Roles Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America

Eliott Flaum

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Stanford University, Biophysics Program, Stanford, CA, United States of America

Hazel Soto-Montoya

Roles Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Validation, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America

Hongquan Li

Roles Methodology, Validation

Affiliation Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America

Kyle Combes

Roles Investigation, Methodology, Software, Visualization, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Olin College of Engineering, Needham, MA, United States of America

Emma Pan

Roles Investigation, Methodology, Software, Visualization, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Olin College of Engineering, Needham, MA, United States of America

Khang Vu

Roles Investigation, Methodology, Software

Affiliation Olin College of Engineering, Needham, MA, United States of America

Kelly Yen

Roles Investigation, Methodology, Software, Visualization

Affiliation Olin College of Engineering, Needham, MA, United States of America

James Dale

Roles Software, Visualization

Affiliation Deakin College, Australia

Patrick Kolbay

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft

Affiliations Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States of America, Department of Anesthesiology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States of America

Simon Ellgas

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Waymo, Mountain View, CA, United States of America

Rebecca Konte

Roles Project administration, Visualization

Affiliation Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America

Rozhin Hajian

Roles Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Department of Applied Mathematics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States of America

Grace Zhong

Roles Investigation, Methodology, Visualization

Affiliation Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America

Noah Jacobs

Roles Investigation, Software

Affiliation Mountain View, CA, United States of America

Amit Jain

Roles Investigation, Software

Affiliation Mountain View, CA, United States of America

Filip Kober

Roles Investigation, Methodology

Affiliation Independent Contributor, Italy

Gerry Ayala

Roles Investigation

Affiliation Wildhorn Outfitters, Draper, Salt Lake City, UT, United States of America

Quentin Allinne

Roles Investigation, Resources

Affiliation Decathlon (Subea), Product Engineer, Hendaye, France

Nicholas Cucinelli

Roles Investigation, Methodology

Affiliation University of Michigan, Entrepreneurial Leadership Faculty, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America

Dave Kasper

Roles Investigation

Affiliation iSnorkel Inc, Dexter, Salt Lake City, UT, United States of America

Luca Borroni

Roles Investigation

Affiliation Independent Contributor, Italy

Patrick Gerber

Roles Data curation, Investigation, Methodology

Affiliation Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), Safety, Prevention and Health Domain, Lausanne, Switzerland

Ross Venook

Roles Investigation

Affiliation Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America

Peter Baek

Roles Investigation, Validation

Affiliation U.S. Anesthesia Partners Texas, Dallas, TX, United States of America

Nitin Arora

Roles Investigation, Validation

Affiliation University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States of America

Philip Wagner

Roles Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Validation

Affiliation Hospital for Special Surgery, New York City, NY, United States of America

Roberto Miki

Roles Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Validation, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Miki & Alfonso Hand & Upper Extremity Center, Miami, FL, United States of America

Jocelyne Kohn

Roles Investigation, Validation

Affiliation Instituto de Oftalmologia, Ophthalmologist, Santiago, Chile

David Kohn Bitran

Roles Investigation, Validation

Affiliation Instituto de Oftalmologia, Ophthalmologist, Santiago, Chile

John Pearson

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Department of Anesthesiology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States of America

Beatriz Arias-Arco

Roles Investigation, Validation

Affiliation Hospital Universitario Infanta Leonor, Madrid, Spain

Ricardo Larrainzar-Garijo

Roles Investigation, Validation

Affiliation Hospital Universitario Infanta Leonor, Madrid, Spain

Cristián Muñiz Herrera

Roles Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Validation

Affiliation Anesthesiologist, Santiago, Chile

Manu Prakash

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

manup@stanford.edu

Affiliation Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America

Competing Interests

Schmidt Futures, Moore Foundation, Autodesk and CZ BioHub provided financial support of the project. Authors Gerry Ayala (Wildhorn Outfitters), Quentin Allinne (Subea Decathlon), and Dave Kasper (iSnorkel Inc) have company affiliations with snorkel-mask manufacturers or distributors. They consulted on original designs of these masks, and in some cases to help with adapter design strategy. None of the scientific data included in this report, nor the conclusions of this report were written or substantially influenced by these co-authors. John Pearson has a conflict of interest as a stake holder in a for-profit entity focused on snorkel based PPE (True Health). Patrick Kolbay is volunteering his time at this company. Stellar Design and Waymo provided support in the form of salaries for authors DP and SE. We certify that none of the other authors have any affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript. None of the other authors (beyond what is listed above) have any affiliations with John Pearson's company. There are no patents, products in development or marketed products associated with this research to declare. This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.