About the Authors

Donald A. Berry

Roles Methodology, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Department of Biostatistics, University of Texas, Houston, Texas, United States of America, Berry Consultants, Austin, Texas, United States of America

Scott Berry

Roles Methodology, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Berry Consultants, Austin, Texas, United States of America

Peter Hale

Roles Methodology, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation The Foundation for Vaccine Research, Washington, D.C., United States of America

Leah Isakov

Roles Methodology, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Seqirus, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America

Andrew W. Lo

Roles Conceptualization, Methodology, Resources, Supervision, Writing – review & editing

alo-admin@mit.edu

Affiliations MIT Sloan School of Management, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America

Kien Wei Siah

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America

Chi Heem Wong

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America

Competing Interests

P.H., K.S., and C.W. report no conflicts. L.I. is an employee of the biotech company Seqirus and receives salary and company stock as part of compensation. A.L. reports personal investments in private biotech companies, biotech venture capital funds, and mutual funds. A.L. is a co-founder and partner of QLS Advisors, a healthcare analytics and consulting company; an advisor to BrightEdge Ventures; a director of BridgeBio Pharma, Roivant Sciences, and Annual Reviews; chairman emeritus and senior advisor to AlphaSimplex Group; and a member of the Board of Overseers at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and the NIH’s National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences Advisory Council and Cures Acceleration Network Review Board. During the most recent six-year period, A.L. has received speaking/consulting fees, honoraria, or other forms of compensation from: AIG, AlphaSimplex Group, BIS, BridgeBio Pharma, Citigroup, Chicago Mercantile Exchange, Financial Times, FONDS Professionell, Harvard University, IMF, National Bank of Belgium, Q Group, Roivant Sciences, Scotia Bank, State Street Bank, University of Chicago, and Yale University. Funding support from the MIT Laboratory for Financial Engineering is gratefully acknowledged, but no direct funding was received for this study, no commercial funding was provided or solicited for this study, and no funding bodies had any role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of this manuscript. The authors were personally salaried by their institutions during the period of writing (though no specific salary was set aside or given for the writing of this manuscript). This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.