Acute trauma from extreme weather events

Discrete climate hazards such as floods, cyclones, wildfires, and extreme heat events constitute potent traumatic stressors. Exposure to such events is associated with acute neurobiological dysregulation, including hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis activation and autonomic imbalance, increasing vulnerability to PTSD, acute stress reactions, and comorbid anxiety and depression [6]. Systematic reviews consistently document high levels of clinically significant psychological distress following climate-related disasters, with a substantial proportion of exposed populations developing persistent symptoms months to years after the event [1,4,5].

Empirical evidence from diverse settings illustrates the durability of this burden. Following Hurricane Katrina, nearly half of low-income survivors experienced clinically significant mental health symptoms, with high rates of distress persisting years later, with displacement and economic insecurity acting as key mediators [7]. In India, post-disaster assessments after the 2013 Uttarakhand floods found a substantial proportion (66.7%) of affected children/adolescents reported psychosocial adversities attributable to the disaster. Loss of shelter and loss of playing space were the social issues having a statistically significant association with psychological distress signals such as feelings of anxiety, helplessness, insecurity, grief and uncertainty [8]. Longitudinal studies of Australian bushfire-affected communities similarly demonstrate elevated prevalence of PTSD, depression, and anxiety well beyond the immediate aftermath, underscoring the long-term mental health consequences of climate-driven disasters [9].

These impacts are magnified in LMICs, where mental health systems are already under-resourced. Cross-national surveys indicate that fewer than one in five individuals with major depressive disorder receive adequate treatment in high-income and 1 in 27 in low-/lower-middle-income countries, a gap that widens further when climate disasters disrupt health services, supply chains, and social support networks [10].

Chronic environmental degradation and solastalgia

Beyond episodic disasters, slow-onset environmental change represents a distinct and under-recognised pathway linking climate change to mental ill-health. Processes such as sea-level rise, soil salinisation, desertification, prolonged drought, and coastal erosion progressively undermine livelihoods, cultural continuity, and place attachment. The concept of solastalgia, articulated by Glenn Albrecht, describes the place-based psychosocial distress experienced when familiar environments deteriorate while individuals remain physically rooted to those settings [11]. Unlike acute trauma, this form of distress accumulates gradually and is mediated through chronic stress mechanisms, contributing to grief, hopelessness, and functional impairment.

A scoping review of 29 studies (2004–2018) identifies a consistent global pattern of solastalgia, where chronic environmental changes, such as drought and sea ice decline disrupt identity and health from the Arctic to the Global South. The review found that 83% of studies explicitly link these slow-onset transformations to emotional and existential distress, with impacts significantly magnified among Indigenous communities. In these contexts, climate-driven landscape loss intersects with historical traumas and structural vulnerabilities, transforming environmental degradation into a profound mental health burden [12].

Eco-anxiety and anticipatory stress

Climate change also affects mental health through anticipatory pathways, particularly among children, adolescents, and young adults. Climate anxiety refers to persistent distress arising from awareness of climate change and its perceived future consequences and has been documented across diverse sociocultural contexts [3]. A large international survey published in The Lancet Planetary Health found that 59% of young people reported feeling very or extremely worried about climate change, while 45% reported impairment in daily functioning, including sleep and concentration difficulties [13]. These findings suggest that climate change is increasingly shaping emotional development, future orientation, and perceived life trajectories well before adulthood.