Introduction

Increasing temperatures, erratic rainfall, and extreme weather events disrupt agricultural production, undermine food security [1], and exacerbate poverty [2]. Climate change challenges pose significant threats to livelihoods, particularly in the Global South, where many communities, especially women, children, the aged and disabled people, experience high levels of poverty and income inequality. Within these contexts, the impacts of climate change are not distributed equally; one such group disproportionately affected is women, who contribute significantly to agricultural and economic activities yet often face systemic inequalities [3,4]. Gender inequity may intersect with other inequities, such as income, ethnicity, age, marital and health status or occupation, putting some women at greater risk from climate impacts than others and warranting an intersectional approach [5]. Evidence from both urban and rural areas clearly shows that climate impacts are felt more intensely in urban communities [6], particularly affecting those who are economically and socially marginalised. Factors such as gender, class, race, ethnic background, age, abilities, sexuality, and non-conforming gender identities influence these vulnerabilities, all within the context of cultural norms and diverse values and practices [7].

Mainstreaming an understanding of intersectional gender inequities in climate adaptation is essential to ensure inclusive interventions and increase the resilience of communities [8]. Recognising the potential of gendered norms and structural inequalities in shaping adaptation outcomes enables more effective planning of climate actions that bolster community resilience [5,9]. This Overview synthesises research findings articulating gender and climate adaptation strategies published in this Collection. By highlighting the intersection of these themes, we underscore the critical need for intersectional and gender-responsive approaches to enhance resilience and sustainable development in vulnerable communities.

Understanding gender dynamics in adaptation decision-making

It is well established that adverse climate impacts disproportionately affect people because of differential vulnerability. Poor and disadvantaged social groups, including minorities, women, elderly, and disabled people, are more vulnerable because of structural disadvantages in access to resources, education and power, which lead to limited adaptive capacities [10,11]. The effectiveness of climate adaptation processes calls for a deep and comprehensive understanding of sociocultural dynamics and the nexus between climate change and gender norms to foster equitable decision-making and more context-specific gender-responsive adaptation [12].

Social inequity and gendered exclusion across ethnic, cultural and socio-economic groups are widely recognised as key determinants that worsen the vulnerability of marginalised groups such as ethnic minorities [13]. Women’s social conditions, including narrow education opportunities, limited access to productive resources, household workloads and exclusion from political and household decision space because of deeply rooted cultural systems, exacerbate their vulnerability [14]. Wealth inequalities among community members translate into inequalities between different social groups. Adaptation measures can widen existing social inequality when they are not carefully planned, as certain social groups can better access proposed adaptation options than others (e.g., improved variety seeds, climate information services, etc). Accordingly, understanding the underlying socioeconomic drivers of gender vulnerability and articulating them in climate change adaptation interventions is crucial for promoting climate-resilient development and social equity [15].

Niemann et al. [16], in this Collection, highlight how climatic changes pose significant challenges to rural livelihoods in East Africa, highlighting the importance of understanding gender dynamics in adaptation decision-making. This qualitative systematic review examines how gender relations impact climate change adaptation choices within households and how these choices, in turn, influence gender dynamics. The findings indicate that while men are often the primary decision-makers, women possess decision-making power in traditionally female areas and female-headed households. Various factors, such as gender norms and resource access, shape these dynamics. The influence of adaptation decisions on intra-household relationships is complex, with unclear outcomes for both genders [17]. The study emphasises the need for gender-responsive adaptation strategies and aligns findings with gender-transformative development theories. The authors explain how many interconnected gender-oriented drivers - norms, gendered task divisions and access to collective resources - influence intra-household adaptation decision-making. The study also shows that women sometimes fail to use promising climate adaptation interventions because of gender norms that prevent them from exercising control over the use of their knowledge, skills and assets.

Intersectionality and vulnerability in food systems

The convergence of climate change, gender and food contexts unveil layered vulnerabilities and multiple risks, particularly to marginalised groups such as farmworkers or young women from minority backgrounds [18,19]. Climate impacts on food systems can worsen the risk of food insecurity for such marginalised and vulnerable groups [1]. The risk of food insecurity is more acute in the Global South for low-income marginalised women who embark on food production, processing and consumption with limited resources [20–24].

In the aquatic food context, the vulnerability of marginalised groups is compounded by climate change impacts [25], including but not limited to sea level rise, salination, and fishery depletion, which pressure the livelihoods of the people who use these resources [26]. Young women, in particular, are on the receiving end as they have socio-cultural challenges, limited access to education and training opportunities and low representation in decision-making over the allocation of production resources. All these challenges restricted their participation in food systems, accelerating their vulnerability to climate change effects [27].

When looking at food systems, it is essential to note intersecting identities to determine more adequate and finely tailored adaptation strategies [28]. Such strategies must encompass not only gender but also other identity markers such as socioeconomic, ethnic or age. With the help of these studies, policymakers and stakeholders will be able to work out ways of providing assistance that is comprehensively essential to the specific groups of people at risk. For example, providing educational and resource access opportunities to younger women can increase their resilience to changing climate and promote sustainable food systems [29]. Addressing intersectionality within food systems is imperative, considering all the socio-political issues discussed around food security and sustainable development in the context of climate change [30].

Adams et al. [13] in this Collection discuss the inequitable impacts of climate change on aquatic food systems (AFS), disproportionately affecting those already experiencing various inequalities, such as gender, class, and ethnicity. A scoping review explored climate change’s links with social identities and AFS alongside data from Bangladeshi aquaculture farmers and the 2019 Illuminating Hidden Harvest project. Findings reveal that intersecting identities, especially among young women from minority groups, hinder adaptation to climate impacts. The study highlights gender-responsive interventions to enhance empowerment and equality.

Health impacts of extreme heat on women in the global south

Extreme heat impacts vary geographically, with tropical and sub-tropical regions at greater risk, and by occupation and socio-cultural context. For example, women living in rural environments in some regions often actively participate in agricultural production systems; thus, they are likely to spend prolonged time in direct sunlight [31,32]. Such an increase in exposure to heat can impact the probability of heat stress and dehydration, as well as aggravate existing health complications like high blood pressure [33].

To tackle these challenges, it is necessary to ensure that there is disaggregated data of different social categories adapted to the socio-cultural context. It is important to note that when presenting data disaggregated by gender, age, and socio-professional categories, such populations address specific issues vulnerable populations face [34]. For instance, within the South Asian region, during the extreme heat waves, women were further put at risk because of low health-seeking behaviour owing to poor mobility opportunities and heavy restrictions on work options, inhibiting the adoption of preventative measures [35].

Heat stress does not affect everyone equally. Studies show that some regions affected by extreme heat are experiencing these gendered effects. In India, female productivity decreases dramatically during heat exacerbation, translating to low family health and food security [36]. Similarly, in Eastern Africa, there is work strain among women and increased work because of high temperatures [37], and this, too, brings about the need for adaptation strategies that look into the gendered differences during extreme events related to climate.

Limaye [38], in this Collection, explores the gendered dimensions of exposure to extreme heat. The paper identifies the wide-ranging health hazards posed by extreme heat, including impacts on physical and mental health and the financial costs of these health hazards. Limaye [38] argues for improved data on impacts on women, for example, through gender-specific vulnerability analyses, to help inform more nuanced and equitable public policy, and also for improved data on the financial costs of health-related impacts in the Global South.

Gender mainstreaming in climate finance mobilization

The mechanisms for accessing climate finance must be gender informed [39]. Strategies may include ensuring the involvement of diverse groups in the decision-making structures of institutions and in the implementation of project activities, undertaking gender analysis in the identification phase of projects, and designing project indicators that take gender issues and their intersection with other inequities into account [40]. This area could boost climate finance’s future impact and the inclusive aspect.

Evidence is emerging about how to develop gender-responsive funding mechanisms [41]. First, developing guidelines and indicators to help measure the gender sensitivity of projects that receive funding supports accountability and promotes best practices [42]. Second, strengthening local women’s organisations’ existing capacity-building strategies could increase their involvement in climate finance processes [43]. Lastly, promoting collaboration among the government, NGOs, and civil societies would help disseminate ideas and participation where it matters most, at the onset of a project where gender considerations are made [44]. When women’s and other marginalised group’s needs and opportunities are paramount in climate finance, climate adaptation is likely to be more efficient, and the resilience of communities is more likely to be enhanced [45].

In this Collection, Gerhard et al. [41] explore gender mainstreaming within climate finance mobilisation, detailing how financial institutions in southern Africa are transforming strategies, policies, and practices to include social science aspects. Focusing on the Green Climate Fund’s Gender Policy highlights its influence on development finance institutions and commercial banks. The research emphasises the importance of acknowledging gender-based vulnerabilities and opportunities in project planning for adequate climate finance, contributing to understanding gender mainstreaming in multilateral climate finance.

Ecosystem-based adaptation and gender justice

Conserving ecosystem integrity while promoting gender equality is vital for achieving climate resilience. Healthy ecosystems provide essential services—such as clean water, fertile soil, and biodiversity—that underpin the livelihoods of rural and urban communities, which often play crucial roles in natural resource management. At the same time, ecosystem-based approaches might further worsen gender inequities in issues such as care work, division of workload or decision-making if intersectional gender differences are not taken into account. Integrating gender justice into ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) ensures that ecosystem health and gender equity are prioritised, fostering an inclusive approach to climate challenges [46].

Women’s knowledge and contributions to sustainable practices are often undervalued or invisible due to gender norms and values. Yet, like all landscape or food system actors, women can contribute critically important knowledge. For example, women-led cooperatives in East Africa implement sustainable agricultural techniques that mitigate climate impacts while improving food security [47]. Similarly, in blue economies, women engage in sustainable fishing practices and coastal management that protect marine ecosystems [48]. These initiatives demonstrate women’s capacity as stewards of the environment and highlight their pivotal role in fostering resilience and the need to recognise and support their contributions.

Dupar [49] investigates the crucial conservation and restoration of ecosystems as they enhance resilience to climate change and support economies globally, and argues that gender equality and ecosystem-based approaches must be integrated. Dupar argues that the Global Biodiversity Framework’s 2030 targets highlight the need for ecosystem resilience and address biodiversity climate impacts. Gender equality is vital in achieving effective ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA), and women’s leadership is essential for sustainability. Addressing unequal access to resources, combating discriminatory norms, and empowering women in decision-making are key strategies. By integrating gender justice into EbA policies and promoting women’s involvement, we can foster equitable climate resilience and advance sustainable outcomes for all. The author recommends effectively incorporating women’s perspectives in ecosystem-based adaptation initiatives.

Concluding thoughts

This Overview highlights the opportunities and the pressing need for incorporating gender-transformative approaches into climate change adaptation policies and practices. When climate risks are high, it is important to note that women are often crucial in responding to them. Climate policies should embed gender-sensitive strategies into their action plans and resource allocation. It has been observed that when these policies are implemented successfully, attention is placed towards achieving sustainable, dignified livelihoods, enhancing the responsiveness of operating communities towards climate change impacts and fostering innovative solutions across different sectors and spatial scales.

Further work is needed to understand the role of gender in adaptation and climate-resilient development. Learning from efforts to achieve sustainable development goals, including gender equity and climate resilience goals, can be a good starting point for policymakers. Equally important will be a focus on locally driven practices that enable the world to achieve climate resilience for everyone.