Fig 1.
Illustrates the basins of Ethiopia, Rift Valley Basin, and Gelana Watershed, compiled using DEM data and watershed boundaries. The map also highlights river gauging stations, meteorological stations, streamlines, and the main river line. DEM data was obtained from ASTER GDEM which is Available at: https://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov/ and the Watershed Boundary Dataset was obtained from: https://www.usgs.gov/.
Table 1.
The coverage area and land use/land cover percentage changed from 1987 to 2020.
Table 2.
Land use/land cover accuracy assessment from 1987 to 2020.
Fig 2.
1987,2002 and 2020 LULC map of Gelana catchment.
(accessed via US geological survey (http://www.usgs.gov/) data processed and analysed by using ArcGIS, ERDAS, and survey data). The maps revealed spatio-temporal trends of Land Use/land cover (LULC) change classes as built-up, forest, agriculture, and pasture land.
Table 3.
Proportional area of actual and simulated LULC image of 2020.
Fig 3.
(predicted by using a Multi-Layer Perceptron Neural Network (MLP-NN) with a Cellular Automata-Markov Chain Model), which is found in the software of the TerrSet 18.32 framework. https://clarklabs.org/product/terrset-2020-academic-license-upgrade/. The maps illustrate the spatial distribution of LULC classes (Built-up, Pasture land, Forest, and Agriculture) and the projected trends over the specified periods.
Table 4.
LULC proportion from 2040 to 2060.
Table 5.
Precipitation changes (%) between the three RCMs under the RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 scenarios.
Table 6.
Temperature change (°C) for three different RCMs under the RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 scenarios.
Table 7.
Global sensitive flow parameters [84].
Fig 4.
Observed and simulated monthly average streamflow for calibration and validation.
(source: MoWIE; Tore Gauging Station data (1990–2013), calibrated and validated within SWAT-CUP). This figure presents the comparison between observed and simulated monthly average streamflow for the calibration (1990–2005) and validation (2006–2013) at the Tore Gauging Station.
Table 8.
Variation of the annual hydrological components under land use/ land cover change.
Table 9.
Variation of the annual hydrological components under Climate change.
Fig 5.
Hydrological response to LULC and climate change.
This figure depicts the hydrological response to changes in land use/land cover (LULC) and climate, with climate data sourced from historical records and RCM, LULC data from USGS, and hydrological variables simulated using the SWAT model.
Table 10.
Variation of hydrological components under combined climate and LULCC.