Fig 1.
Location of the study area in Germany (top left) and in relation to the surrounding municipalities (bottom left); the right map shows building positions within the study area and land use classes provided to the PALM model; land use classes are grouped into pavement types, vegetation types and water. German federal states borders are provided by the Federal Agency for Cartography and Geodesy [34], municipality borders are provided by Geobasis NRW [35]. The base map (top left) is added in QGIS as XYZ Tiles [36] and the base map (bottom left) is provided by the Web Map Service (WMS) of the Federal Agency for Cartography and Geodesy [37].
Table 1.
Measurement range and accuracy of the relevant sensors at the professional weather station LMSS.
Fig 2.
Domain layouts of the mesoscale simulation (upper right) and the microscale simulation with parent and child domains as well as the available Netatmo stations in the study area.
The base map (main map) is provided by the Web Map Service (WMS) of Geobasis NRW [49] and the base map (top right) is provided by the Web Map Service (WMS) of the Federal Agency for Cartography and Geodesy [37].
Table 2.
Information on the datasets used as the basis for the static driver as model input.
Fig 3.
Spatiotemporal pattern of the 2 m hourly averaged air temperature [°C] for the study area for the timesteps 08th of August 05:00 h, 08th of August 14:00 h, 08th of August 20:00 h and 09th of August 04:00 h.
Fig 4.
Spatiotemporal pattern of the hourly averaged urban-rural temperature differences [K] for the study area for the timesteps 08th of August 05:00 h, 08th of August 14:00 h, 08th of August 20:00 h and 09th of August 04:00 h.
Fig 5.
Comparison of the PALM 2 m air temperature [°C], relative humidity [%] and 10 m wind speed [m/s] to the observational data from the professional weather station LMSS for the timeframe 8th of August 02:00 h to 9th of August 05:00 h.
Fig 6.
Modelled energy fluxes separated into total energy flux (Q*), sensible heat flux (QH), latent heat flux (QE) and ground heat flux (QG) at the location of the LMSS station for the timeframe 8th of August 02:00 h to 9th of August 05:00 h.
Table 3.
Evaluation metrics for the study area, divided by parent and child domain for the air temperature [°C].
Fig 7.
Boxplot time series of the PALM 2 m air temperature [°C] and Netatmo air temperature [°C] for the parent (left) and child (right) domain of the study area for the timeframe 8th of August 02:00 h to 9th of August 05:00 h.
Table 4.
Evaluation metrics for the seven time intervals for the air temperature [°C], split by model domains.
Fig 8.
Timeseries of the PALM 2 m air temperature [°C] and Netatmo air temperature [°C] for each station individually for the parent domain for the timeframe 8th of August 02:00 h to 9th of August 05:00 h.
Fig 9.
Spatiotemporal pattern of the air temperature differences [K] between the PALM and Netatmo data for the study area for the timesteps 08th of August 05:00 h, 08th of August 14:00 h, 08th of August 20:00 h and 09th of August 04:00 h.
Base map is provided by the Web Map Service (WMS) of Geobasis NRW [71].