Fig 1.
Excerpts of weather diary of Georg Christoph Eimmart (Nuremberg), 1695–1704.
Fig 2.
(a) Pressure in Paris and Oxford as well as daily minimum and maximum temperature in Paris from January to March 1684. Also shown is information from weather diaries from Oxford (Robert Plot, simplified, e.g., “moist” or “close” weather is not shown), London (John Downes), and Zurich (Johann Heinrich Fries). (b) Frost fair on River Thames, January 1684 (Hondius, Wikimedia Commons, excerpt). (c) Anomalies in temperature and sea-level pressure (contours, in hPa) in January 1684 relative to the preceding 30 years in the climate reconstruction EKF400v2 [60].
Fig 3.
(a) Copy of the measurements made onboard a ship in Havanna by Tomás José de Ugarte y Lyano in August 1794, data sheet from Humboldt’s legacy (excerpt). (b) Possible track of the 1794 hurricane. (c) Wind, pressure and temperature data in Havanna from 25 to 28 August 1794 (redrawn, from [61]).
Fig 4.
(a) Indices of westerly flow based on Paris-London pressure (PL), the Westerly Index (WI) and NAO indices based on the Lamb weather types (NAOLWT), 20CRv3 (NAO20CRv3) and EKF400v2 (NAOEKF400v2), all for Dec.-Mar. All indices are standardized with respect to the 1850–1900 period (the right panel shows a zoom-in to the period 1750–1830). (b) 30-yr moving correlations between all indices (except NAO20CRv3, which is the shortest).
Fig 5.
Daily mean temperature on 18 August 1858 in (a) 20CRv3 (ensemble mean) and (b) EUSTACE. (a) additionally shows 500 hPa geopotential height (in gpm). Dashed contours indicate the ensemble standard deviation (in K).
Fig 6.
Daily analog reconstructions and reanalyses help to assess whether the record flood in Switzerland in early July 1817 were caused by snow melt or heavy precipitation [103].
(a) Potential snow (precipitation on days with mean temperatures below 4°C) from 16 April to 15 May 1817. (b) Precipitation total in the two weeks before the flood event, (c) 850 hPa height and specific humidity in 20CRv2c (ensemble mean) on 1 July 1817. (d) Excerpt of a weather diary from the monastery of Einsiedeln (Klosterarchiv Einsiedeln: KAE.A.39/6 [100]).
Fig 7.
Ensemble mean (contours) and ensemble standard deviation (colours) of mean sea-level pressure on 14 October 1881, 12Z, in 20CRv3.
Fig 8.
Dynamical downscaling of a snow event on 13 December 1916.
(a) Total precipitation in the 24 hours preceding 0700 UTC 14 December 1916) with mean freezing level (m) indicated by the gray lines. Circles represent observations, red crosses locate documented major avalanches on 13 December 1916. (b) Change in snow depth between 5 and 13 December 1916 (at 0700 UTC) with circles representing observations. The military front line in 1916 is also shown (red dotted line) [123].