1.1 Background

As commonly defined in the literature, illegal dumping refers to the unauthorized disposal of large quantities of waste in areas that are not designated for waste management (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [1–4]). This practice poses a significant environmental concern worldwide, with oceans and waterways being particularly affected. Illegal dumping occurs in various settings, including remote rural areas and heavily populated urban areas, and has a detrimental impact on coastlines and waterways, increasing the likelihood of waste entering aquatic ecosystems. For small islands, which have a small coast-to-land ratio, this issue is especially problematic. A recent study [5] sheds light on the persistent problem of illegal dumping in small islands located in the south-eastern Caribbean, which policy makers and influencers consider a major contributor to the problem of marine litter. As such, it is crucial to conduct research on illegal dumping in small island developing states (SIDS) to better understand and address this issue.

Additionally, the limited land areas and numerous tributaries and rivers in small islands, such as the Windward Islands, make them more susceptible to waste from disposal sites, (whether legal or illegal), entering their marine environments due to their proximity to watersheds [6]. This vulnerability can disrupt interconnected ecosystems, delicate ecological balances, threaten biodiversity and subsequently negatively impact local economies that rely on tourism and fishing industries [7]. Furthermore, island nations often encounter difficulties such as scarce land resources for alternative waste disposal options and the establishment of new management facilities. The absence of adequate infrastructure exacerbates these challenges [8]. Researching illegal dumping, SIDS can provide valuable insights to inform policies and initiatives that address these unique challenges, promoting sustainable waste management practices and protecting the environment and communities that depend on it.

1.2 The impacts of illegal dumping

The consequences of illegal dumping on the environment and human health are significant. Improper waste disposal can lead to soil and water contamination, adversely impacting flora and fauna and causing long-lasting damage to ecosystems. Furthermore, the ocean frequently serves as the ultimate repository for solid waste, exacerbating the marine litter crisis. Furthermore, as the accumulation of plastic and other debris rises, the risks of adverse effects also escalate. The impacts of marine litter have been extensively researched and can be summarised to have several biological, economic, and health consequences for coastal and marine environments [9–12]. It adversely affects wildlife, leading to the death of numerous organisms, damaging corals, and disrupting ecosystems [9, 13–17]. Economically, marine litter directly impacts industries like maritime and fisheries, causing fouling of propellers and vessel damage [18, 19]), and indirectly impairs coastal tourism by reducing aesthetic value [16, 20, 21]. Health and safety risks include accidents involving debris [22, 23], toxicity from microplastics and nanoplastics in biological chains [24, 25], and the presence of plastic polymers in human blood [26].

1.3 Significance of research in small island contexts

Conducting research on illegal dumping on small islands like Grenada is imperative. Firstly, small islands are often heavily dependent on their natural resources and ecosystems for their livelihoods ([27–29]), making them more vulnerable to the impacts of environmental degradation caused by illegal dumping. Therefore, addressing the issue of illegal dumping in these communities is critical to protecting their economies, cultures, and ways of life. Secondly, small islands often have limited resources and infrastructure to manage their waste effectively [30, 31], which can contribute to the prevalence of illegal dumping. Lastly, small island communities offer valuable insights into the impacts of illegal dumping on coastal environments, due to their distinct geographic and cultural contexts. It is likely that islands have a nuance or atypical context when it comes to grasping local repercussions of this practice. Such studies can inform global strategies to prevent or reduce marine litter and its impact and protect vulnerable coastal habitats.

The study is guided by four key research questions. The first question explores the extent of illegal dumping in Grenada, including the number, locations, and contents of illegal dumping sites, as well as their proximity to water bodies like rivers and the ocean. The second question investigates the feasibility of identifying industries and factors contributing to illegal dumping in Grenada. This includes examining economic factors that might make illegal dumping more cost-effective than proper waste disposal, assessing the effectiveness of current regulations and enforcement measures, and exploring any social or cultural norms that might influence the acceptance of illegal dumping.

The third question examines the relationship between community characteristics in Grenada and the prevalence and volume of illegal dumping. This involves an analysis of socio-economic, geographic, and demographic factors in communities impacted by illegal dumping. For example, communities with lower socio-economic status might experience higher instances of illegal dumping due to limited waste management resources. Geographic isolation can also make remote areas more vulnerable, while demographic factors like population density and non-residential influences significantly impact the frequency and volume of illegal dumping.

The fourth question delves into the influence of weather and other climatic factors on waste management and disposal behaviors. This aspect of the study aims to understand how weather patterns, such as heavy rainfall, affect the transport of waste into water bodies and how cultural attitudes towards waste disposal change in relation to weather events. It might also explore how slow-onset natural events and annual weather variations exacerbate marine debris and waste management issues.

Finally, the study seeks to identify the most effective strategies for addressing illegal dumping in Grenada and improving existing waste management practices and policies. This involves exploring current inefficiencies and ambiguous regulations that may unintentionally encourage illegal dumping, as well as evaluating factors like the timeliness of waste collection and enforcement issues that influence public and industrial waste disposal behaviors and perceptions.

These questions, addressing different facets of the illegal dumping issue, could help in comprehensively understanding the scale, impact, and underlying causes of illegal waste disposal, thereby aiding in devising targeted interventions, policy modifications, and community awareness programs.

1.4 Theoretical foundations

To effectively tackle the issue of illegal dumping in Grenada, integrating several key theoretical perspectives is crucial. The Theory of Planned Behavior [32] suggests that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control significantly influence individual behavior, including illegal dumping. Complementing this, the Social Learning Theory [33, 34], proposes that behaviors are acquired through observing and imitating others, a concept vital for understanding the propagation of illegal dumping practices.

Additionally, work by [35, 36] on environmental justice provides insights into how environmental and social contexts contribute to such environmental crimes. They emphasize the role of the physical environment and societal injustices in shaping illegal dumping behaviors and the importance of modifying these factors for crime prevention. Finally, the necessity of considering local contexts and the broader implications of environmental harms and justice in addressing environmental crimes [37, 38]. Together, these theories and studies form a comprehensive framework for understanding and addressing the complex issue of illegal dumping in Grenada, highlighting the interplay between individual behaviors, societal norms, environmental factors, and justice systems.

2.1 Ethics statement

Ethical approval for this study was granted by The World Maritime University Research Ethics Committee. Permission from the Grenada Solid Waste Management Authority was obtained for all fieldwork, adhering to their recommendations. Confidentiality and informed consent were ensured for all research interview participants, with data being securely anonymized. The highest standards of ethical research were upheld throughout the study, ensuring integrity and responsibility in all methodologies.

2.2 On-site field work

The selection of locations for this study was based on a list of illegal dump sites provided by the Grenada Solid Waste Management Authority (GSWMA), with whom the location of illegal dump sites was collaboratively identified. While no official permits were found to be necessary for the scope and nature of the study, permission was obtained for the research activities from the GSWMA. All activities were conducted in accordance with informal recommendations set by the GSWMA. The authority provided a list of thirteen (13) communities in which illegal dumping is known to occur with a focus on those near major waterways and the coast. Some of these areas have multiple illegal dump piles adding up to a total of twenty-nine (29) point locations. Note these sites were description based, with no Global Position System (GPS) coordinates.

In January 2023, based on the descriptions as mentioned above, the 29 illegal dumping point locations were identified and GPS locations recorded and organized in Microsoft Excel, which served as both storage and a tool for data analysis. In parallel, ArcGIS software (Arc Map 10.8.2) was used to create a spatially referenced database map. This process involved converting GPS coordinates, initially recorded as X and Y coordinates in Google Maps, to a format compatible with ArcGIS. This conversion transforms location details into geographic coordinates that can be visualized spatially. The resultant ’database map’ is a geographic representation of the dataset (Fig 1). This map visualizes data points in their actual geographic locations, providing a tool for spatial analysis and aiding in the identification of geographic patterns or trends within the dataset.

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Fig 1. Mapping of the illegal dumpsites near major rivers and tributaries and along coasts in Grenada.

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In this study, the methodology by [39] to measure the volume and weight of illegal solid waste dumps was adopted. However, a few limitations with the original methodology were encountered, particularly with respect to measuring waste weight. The piles examined were considerably larger than those in the [39] study, and the hanging scale equipment used in the original study proved unsuitable for assessing the weight of such large piles. Additionally, the original study focused exclusively on construction debris and did not consider larger and more diverse debris, including plastics, furniture, white goods, and abandoned vehicles, among others. Consequently, weight measurements were not recorded at these sites due to the absence of appropriate scale.

To address these limitations and ensure unbiased findings, the study implemented key adjustments in its methodology. Given the challenges in measuring the weight of large and diverse waste piles, the study pivoted to prioritize volume measurement. This approach is rooted in the unique insights volume data can offer in the context of illegal dumping. Volume measurement is not only more feasible for a wide range of waste types but also provides essential information for understanding the spatial extent and visual impact of illegal dumping sites. These aspects are crucial in differentiating illegal dumping from littering, as large volumes of waste are more likely to indicate illegal dumping practices. Also, focusing solely on C&D waste would have limited the study’s scope and its applicability to broader environmental concerns. C&D waste is a significant component of solid waste, but it is not typically a major contributor to marine litter. In contrast, plastics and other non-C&D materials are more likely to be dispersed into waterways and oceans, contributing significantly to marine pollution. Including a diverse range of waste types in the study allows for a more holistic understanding of the sources and impacts of illegal dumping.

As it pertains to composition, the different types of illegally dumped waste were catalogued into the following categories: Waste was classified into thirteen primary categories, such as construction and demolition (C&D), derelict vehicle (DV) and DV parts, electronic waste (e-waste), glass, household/domestic waste, medical, healthcare, hygiene-related waste, metals (non C&D), organic waste, paper and cardboard, plastics including Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET or PETE), High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE), Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Expanded Polystyrene(EPS), textiles, used tires and white goods.

Regarding volume, there are two types of volume measurements used in the categorization of waste piles, including stockpiled waste- which is waste shaped in rectangular pyramid (i.e., rectangular base pyramidal shape) and gathered waste in the shape of a rectangular prism [39]. To calculate the volume of these waste piles, a compact, retractable 25ft measuring tape was utilized. Additionally, the distance from the illegal dump points to the nearest waterways was determined using the same measuring tape.

The volume (Vs) of a stockpiled waste is calculated using the formula for the volume of a rectangular pyramid. The formula is Vs = (1/3) x (B x L x H), where B is the base area, L is the length, and H is the height of the pyramid (Fig 2).

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Fig 2. Rectangular pyramid waste shape.

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The volume of collected waste, which typically forms a rectangular prism shape on the ground, can be calculated using the formula for the volume of a rectangular prism. The volume of gathered waste (Vg) is determined by multiplying the length (L), width (B), and height (H) together: Vg = L x B x H (Fig 3).

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Fig 3. Rectangular prism shape waste.

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Scattered wastes that measured an estimated volume of 10ft³ and over were also recorded. Photographic documentation of the illegal dumps was also recorded.

In addition, the prevalence of illegal dumpsites is frequently associated with the existing waste management systems in the community and the socio-economic status of its residents [40]. As part of our methodology, an inventory of community characteristics was conducted, categorizing each as agricultural or rural, expatriate communities, housing development industrial and sub-urban and remote coastal. This systematic classification aimed to identify patterns and correlations pertaining to the propensity of illegal dumping occurrences in different types of communities. The total volume of illegal waste for each community type was calculated and recorded, with the dominant waste type for each location identified. This process was conducted with an approximate margin of error of 5%.

2.3 Research interviews

2.4 Data analyses

The data from the fieldwork was entered into Microsoft Excel Software, encompassing all details of the data collected. This data was then systematically consolidated and analyzed in Excel to yield clear and representative figures. In parallel, information from the interviews was also imported into Microsoft Excel, serving a distinct yet complementary role in the overall data analysis process. The analysis integrated both factual data (e.g., operational information) and professional opinions from participants. This integrated approach was adopted to inform policymaking and management decisions, but it does not represent a direct analysis of the participants’ responses.

3.1 Extent and characteristics of illegal dumping in Grenada

Two critical aspects of illegal dumping in Grenada including the locations of dumpsites near waterways and the coast and the types of debris found at these sites were identified. These elements are pivotal in understanding the extent and characteristics of illegal dumping on the island. The proximity of dumpsites to sensitive ecological zones and the variety of waste materials present insights into the environmental impact and challenges posed by this issue. While the volume of dumped waste is a significant factor to discuss as a characteristic, it is more thoroughly examined in Section 3.3 in relation to community characteristics.

3.1.1 Illegal dumping near waterways and the coast.

Illegal dumping near waterways and the coast has been found to have a greater impact on downstream water quality compared to dumping that occurs farther away [41]. Fig 1 illustrates a concentration of illegal dumping sites along the coast and outskirts of the island, predominantly in the eastern region that faces the Atlantic. This geographic positioning near water bodies increases the risk of litter reaching the sea and worsening marine pollution. The eastern part of the island, facing the Atlantic, experiences strong winds and powerful currents. This is typical for windward Caribbean islands [42]. These conditions aid in dispersing marine litter from dumping sites and contribute to its rapid, widespread distribution. This phenomenon significantly increases the environmental risk both locally and in distant regions influenced by these currents.

The study also revealed that three illegal dumpsites were on the coast (one of which was directly on the shoreline) and seven illegal dumpsites were situated in close proximity to rivers (within 80 meters) and coastal zones (within 500 meters) (Fig 4). This close proximity increases the likelihood of these dumpsites contributing significantly to marine litter and causing other environmental damage. It is especially concerning for lotic systems, as the closer the dumpsites are to such aquatic bodies, the greater the chance of waste entering the ocean. A notable finding reveals that these collective 10 illegal dumpsites contribute to 67.6% of the total collective volume of illegal dumps (see S2 Table). Although proximity to multiple aquatic access points might encourage illegal dumping, this statistic alone does not provide direct evidence for such a conclusion.

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Fig 4. Scatter plot of illegal dumping site on and near waterways and coastal areas.

Note, red dashed rectangles should be areas of particular interest or concern as it highlights. For instance, the dumps within the rectangle around piles 16–20 are close to both the ocean and a river/tributary, making them potentially more environmentally concerning.

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3.1.2 Types of debris.

An examination of data from 29 illegal dumpsites in Grenada reveals the considerable prevalence of diverse waste materials (Fig 5). C&D debris was the most common type of debris identified in 79.3% of the dumpsites. C&D debris typically refers to the waste material generated during construction, renovation, and demolition [43, 44]. In this study it generally includes masonry and cementitious materials (e.g., concrete, cement, bricks, ceramics), wood and metals (steel, iron, aluminium, copper). Plastic waste was the second most common, found in 72.4% of the sites. Within this category, PET, PETE, HDPE, and LDPE constituted 67% of the plastic waste found. The remaining 5.4% consisted of PVC and EPS. This information could be used to inform recycling policy or production decisions to favor more recyclable types of plastics. This is followed by non-C&D metals and treated wood piles found in approximately 27.6% of the dumpsites. A few other waste types including DV & DV parts, E-waste, household related and domestic waste and used tires were each found in 24.1% of the dumpsites.

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Fig 5. Percentage of the different types of waste found across the illegal dumping sites in study.

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The occurrence of plastics in 72.4% of the dumpsites, is concerning; given that plastic pollution is acknowledged as a significant global issue [45]. Very little studies target illegal dumping specifically of plastics in coastal and marine ecosystems in an island setting. However, several studies have found large amounts of debris, particularly plastics, on islands’ beaches and in other coastal environments, primarily originating from land sources [45, 46]. The data indicates that the occurrence of plastics in illegal dumpsites near coastal zones aligns with the broader problem of plastic pollution and marine litter faced by SIDS. The high percentage of PET, PETE, HDPE, and LDPE plastics in these dumpsites implies that SIDS are susceptible to plastic pollution due to the importation of these materials and insufficient waste management infrastructure as captured by [5]. The persistence of plastics in the environment and their potential to break down into microplastics pose a considerable threat to aquatic life and water quality [47]. Furthermore, plastics can act as carriers for pollutants and invasive species, exacerbating the impact on aquatic ecosystems [48].

3.2 Industries and other factors contributing to illegal dumping

Evaluating the possible industries and key factors contributing to illegal dumping in Grenada, along with understanding their underlying motivations, served as a preliminary baseline assessment. The major waste types at illegal dumpsites include C&D and plastics. Regarding the latter, Grenada’s lack of a significant plastic-producing industry [5] implies that the prevalence of plastic waste in over 70% of illegal dumping sites is more a result of consumption than production. This observation is consistent with the behavioral theories discussed in Section 1.4. The data suggests that a considerable portion of this type of waste originates from consumer products. The types of plastics listed (PET, PETE, HDPE, LDPE) are commonly found in packaging materials, beverage containers, and various household items.

The construction industry emerges as a major contributor to illegal dumping. A notable correlation exists between the rise in C&D waste and the surge in foreign investment in Caribbean construction projects. This increase, driven by factors like tourism industry growth and investment-friendly policies, has attracted foreign interest in real estate, leading to over twenty approved development projects in Grenada [49].

The focus on foreign investors in this context is critical because their activities can significantly contribute to waste management challenges in the region. Although specific case studies with statistics connecting increased foreign investments in hotel developments to illegal dumping may be limited, it is possible to identify similar cases where rapid development and construction activities have led to waste management challenges. Case in point is Bali, Indonesia: Over the years, rapid development, especially in the tourism sector, has contributed to significant waste management challenges in Bali [50]. The island has experienced a surge in construction activities, including hotels and resorts, which resulted in increased waste generation, including C&D waste. Echoing this pattern, is Participant 1.

"Being involved in waste management for so many years, I’ve seen firsthand the clear connection between the recent surge in construction activities and the increase in C&D waste. On small islands like ours, where space and resources are limited, the impact of increased construction activity is felt more acutely. This pattern is not coincidental; it’s a direct consequence of what might be recognized as a construction boom over the years, especially with increases in hotel development. Each new construction project, especially large-scale developments, generates substantial amounts of waste, from demolished materials to off-cuts and packaging.”–Participant 1

A critical issue that arises is the lack of enforcement and compliance, which fosters a culture of illegal dumping. According to Participant 1, in Grenada, this has become a prevalent problem, with truckers repeatedly evading consequences due to the cumbersome bureaucratic process (also known as "red tape") involved in charging, investigating, and prosecuting offenders, exacerbated by a lack of human capacity. Participants from other Windward Islands corroborated this issue as well.

From a regulatory standpoint, it may be beneficial to make solid waste management a prerequisite for foreign investment. Both local and foreign investors should be required to integrate environmental responsibility into their corporate social responsibility (CSR) strategies. This would demonstrate a commitment to ethical and sustainable practices, which could, in turn, enhance the organization’s reputation and appeal to stakeholders who value sustainability. The implementation of sustainable waste management practices can enhance resource efficiency, subsequently decreasing production costs and reducing the company’s environmental impact. Furthermore, adhering to sustainable business practices, including responsible waste management, can contribute to long-term profitability by mitigating environmental risks, cutting costs, and establishing a robust brand reputation. In summary, prioritizing environmental responsibility within a company’s CSR strategy is essential for promoting sustainability, resource efficiency, and long-term success.

The study also identifies contributions to illegal dumping from other industries, such as the tire industry, with tires being the predominant waste type at three dumpsites. suggests a significant environmental concern, particularly for aquatic and marine ecosystems. Discarded tires can leach harmful chemicals into water bodies, disrupting aquatic life and contributing to the broader issue of marine litter, which poses a threat to marine biodiversity and water quality [51–53]. Additionally, non-industrial sources, found in over 20% of sites, include non-C&D metal, DV & DV parts, and E-Waste, as well as household/domestic waste. The absence of local manufacturers for items like C&D metal, DV & DV parts, and E-Waste again highlights the issue of consumer-driven waste. This indicates that management strategies should target waste disposal practices while also involving producers and retailers in the waste reduction process. This suggests a shift towards extended producer responsibility (EPR), where the external manufacturers and local retailers are held accountable for the entire lifecycle of their products, including post-consumer waste. It also underscores the need for more effective consumer education and engagement strategies to promote responsible consumption and disposal behaviors.

The highlighted presence of hazardous substances such as lead, mercury, and cadmium in E-waste [54], accentuates the significant environmental and health hazards linked with consumer-driven waste types. This observation underscores the urgent need for the enforcement of more stringent penalties for high-risk offenses related to the illegal dumping of these materials. A critical examination of the current punitive measures reveals a substantial gap between the imposed fines and the actual environmental and health repercussions stemming from illegal dumping, as well as the clean-up cost.

All participants either agreed or shared similar sentiments to the statement made Participant 1, who pointed out that,

"the levied charges or fines often fail to adequately reflect the true extent of environmental degradation and health impacts resulting from illegal dumping and subsequent pollution. A thorough assessment of the changes in ecosystem quality and the direct implications on human health and maybe an understanding of what we might be actually missing out on because of the degraded systems, might paint a more accurate picture of the tangible or quantifiable damages, thereby suggesting a revision of the penalties to better mirror these impacts."

In line with this, the Chapter 334A Waste Management Act of Grenada, specifically in Part V, Section 32, stipulates a penalty of twenty thousand dollars and a three-month imprisonment term for illegal waste disposal offenses. However, this fine is seldom enforced to its full extent. Parallel trends are observed across the Windward Islands, where, in many instances, perpetrators, if apprehended, are merely instructed to clean up the dumped waste. This practice was highlighted during interviews with regional waste management authorities. Participant 9 stated,

"typically, if we manage to identify the culprits of illegal dumping, the most common course of action is to have them remove the waste themselves. This approach, while offering an immediate remedy, does little to address the underlying issue or deter future incidents."

This situation calls for a comprehensive reevaluation of waste management policies and enforcement mechanisms. By aligning penalties with the actual environmental and public health costs of illegal dumping, and ensuring consistent enforcement of these penalties, a more effective deterrent against such practices can be established, fostering a culture of environmental responsibility and accountability.

Fostering a culture of environmental responsibility and accountability necessitates not only the reevaluation of penalty structures but also the exploration of innovative strategies to prevent illegal dumping. In this context, the deployment of surveillance cameras, both real and simulated, emerges as a noteworthy deterrent. Research conducted by [55, 56] supports the idea that the perceived presence of monitoring can significantly diminish the likelihood of illegal dumping activities. This strategy capitalizes on the psychological impact of surveillance, where the mere belief of being watched can alter behavior.

However, the efficacy of such surveillance measures might be limited, particularly when dealing with larger entities such as construction or trucking companies operating in the island. These entities often possess the means to identify and thereby disregard fake surveillance tools, diminishing the deterrent effect of such strategies. This limitation points to the need for a more nuanced approach to waste management, one that goes beyond general measures and considers the specific characteristics and capabilities of different waste generators.

The challenge, therefore, lies in effectively managing diverse types of waste, such as consumer-driven waste and C&D waste. Each type presents unique challenges and requires tailored strategies. For instance, consumer-driven waste might be better managed through public education campaigns and convenient disposal options, whereas C&D waste might require stricter regulation and oversight, considering the scale and nature of the entities involved.

3.3 Illegal dumping and community characteristics

Understanding the characteristics of communities disproportionately affected by illegal dumping is essential for policymakers and stakeholders to develop targeted interventions that promote environmental justice and minimize the harmful effects of this activity [57]. Characterizing communities could serve as a proxy for identifying socio-economic impacts that are linked with the existence of illegal dumpsites, particularly in areas near rivers and oceans. Illegal dumpsites have been documented in a range of community types, including agricultural and rural, expatriate, housing development, remote coastal, and suburban areas with industrial activities (Fig 6). This data is crucial as it, combined with an understanding of the types of waste found at illegal dump sites, helps in identifying the communities that are more susceptible to illegal dumping and the underlying reasons for this issue.

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Fig 6. Volume of illegal dumps by community and characterization of the communities.

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Fig 6 depicts a concerning trend: agricultural and rural lands, where a significant 63.46% of Grenada’s population resides [58] are disproportionately affected by illegal dumpsites, many located within residential zones. This statistic underscores the extensive impact of illegal dumping on the majority of the country’s populace, particularly in rural communities. studies have revealed a striking correlation between the prevalence of illegal dumping and the level of social capital within communities. Communities with lower social capital, identified by weaker networks, norms, and trust that facilitate coordination and cooperation, are observed to be more susceptible to environmental degradation, including illegal dumping activities [59–61].

These communities, often rural, lack strong social bonds, which results in a reluctance to report or address illegal activities. This vulnerability is exploited by individuals from more urban and suburban areas, who offload waste in these less monitored regions.

A significant aspect of this issue is the environmental justice concern it raises. As Participant 9 insightfully notes,

"in rural areas where community ties are weaker, we see a higher incidence of illegal dumpsites. These areas are burdened not only with their own waste challenges but also become dumping grounds for waste from urban or suburban regions. This highlights the urgent need for strategies that focus on both enhancing waste management infrastructure and fostering community empowerment and cooperation."

The critical link here is between the location of the dumpsites in rural and agricultural areas and the potential negative consequences. Dumped waste could harm agriculture by contaminating water sources or become a health hazard attracting pests and disease carriers. Moreover, the accumulation of solid waste in water bodies can deplete aquatic resources, negatively affecting the livelihoods of communities that depend on fishing or other water-related industries.

Savan Swazee, a community in the parish of St. Patrick, has the largest volume of illegally dumped waste, approximately 9000 ft³. Characterized as an agricultural area, it is significantly distant from the legal landfill in the southern parish of St. George, Grenada. This isolation, combined with the lack of housing within a one-mile radius, makes it a prime target for such activities. Notably, in Savan Swazee, C&D waste is most predominant, as indicated in S2 Table. This suggests that construction companies, contractors, and truckers involved in nearby construction activities may be major contributors to this ongoing problem.

Despite numerous cleanup efforts and media coverage highlighting the issue, the illegal dumping in Savan Swazee continues unabated. According to Participant 1,

“Savan Swazee is perhaps the most recognized area for consistent illegal dumping on the island. We have conducted several cleanups and engaged with the local media houses to broadcast the issue time and time again, yet the challenge persists. It’s clear that cleanup efforts alone are not enough. Enforcement of existing laws is failing, and why should it be…when this area’s reputation is a hotspot for illegal dumping? “

Therefore, to effectively tackle the persistent problem of illegal dumping in Savan Swazee, it’s crucial to address the underlying issues, such as the transportation costs and inconvenience stemming from the significant distance to the legal landfill. A potential solution to consider is establishing a more centralized landfill, offering easier access for northern communities. However, this approach has its complexities. As highlighted by Participant 1,

“a similar strategy was previously attempted as a temporary measure. Unfortunately, it faced numerous challenges from limited funding, not enough human resources, and maintenance of this had several difficulties, alongside various environmental concerns. And so, with all of these factors in play, it eventually was closed and ultimately removed as a legal landfill.”

The next significant instance of illegally dumped waste was recorded in Seamoon, St. Andrew, with a volume of approximately 5200 ft³. This dump site, situated adjacent to the inter-tidal zone, contained almost every type of waste except for white goods. The predominant form of debris was C&D material, as further detailed in S3 Table. This debris was notably concealed by a considerable amount of natural debris.

The act of disguising trash with natural materials is an intentional tactic to evade detection in illegal dumping practices. Individuals or organizations blend their waste with elements like branches, leaves, or soil to render it less noticeable. This method not only hampers the efforts of authorities to identify and track illegal dumping but also complicates the assessment of the waste type and volume involved. The use of this tactic implies that people are aware that illegal dumping of solid waste is unacceptable.

In the context of the affected beach, there’s a notable issue of major coastal erosion, attributed to a combination of historical sandmining activities and current challenges like sea level rise and climate change-induced flooding. The illegal dumping, characterized by the formation of multiple piles along the inter-tidal zone, seems to be an ill-conceived effort to protect the coastal area from sea level rise and consequent erosion, as illustrated in S1 File. In [5], the author observed that coastal barriers made of materials like old tires, galvanized items, and sand-filled plastic bags are often used in such erosion-prone areas. However, due to their haphazard placement, these debris barriers are highly susceptible to becoming marine litter.

3.4 Climatic factors influence waste management and disposal behaviors

It is becoming clearer that climatic factors and weather patterns influence people’s waste management and disposal behaviors. Interviews with participants from across the Windward Islands suggest that significantly higher litter densities are associated with heavy rains and their related runoff. In addition to heavy rainfalls (and strong winds) transporting debris to the ocean, there is a surprising behavioral attitude linked to heavy rainfalls. On two of the islands, despite increased education on pollution, the cultural attitude persists: heavy rainfall is seen as an opportunity to dispose of bulky waste. These individuals may have adopted an “out of sight, out of mind” perspective, believing that as long as they are not polluting the land or creating visible piles of waste, their actions are acceptable. Participant 3 stated,

“when it rains heavy, when we experience the torrential rainfalls, you see that all sorts of waste are being carried down our rivers, and even some of roads that get flooded out; and what is worse, is the fact that people today are still using the rain and heavy flow of the rivers as an opportunity to discard of their bulky waste especially like old white goods. And this has a tendency to happen up hilly areas and rural areas, and perhaps there’s less monitoring going on. And despite what is being taught in schools about littering and the awareness campaigns over the years it still doesn’t seem to reach the people who have this sort of ‘out of sight, out of mind’ mindset who are doing this. They need to understand that our island’s watersheds are interconnected with the ocean, and what we discard irresponsibly on land inevitably affects our marine species, much less if we directly put them into the river. Some of the same marine species like fishes and so that we have to consume are what are being impacted. So, we always say it, but you know how it is with finances and human resources, but we need our waste management systems to significantly improve, the collection rates of bulky junk may need to happen more often and perhaps we need to devise a plan for the more secluded areas.”

Building upon these insights gained, it becomes clear that addressing the issue of marine litter and solid waste requires a deeper understanding of their relationship with climate change. The importance of this aspect was underscored in [5], particularly in the context of slow-onset natural events. Events such as the influx of sargassum and the rise in sea levels, which lead to flooding and erosion, significantly worsen the problem of marine debris. Furthermore, the impact of annual and frequent torrential rainfalls, a topic extending beyond the scope of [5], should be acknowledged as a critical climate component. Furthermore, the aftermath of natural disasters poses unique waste management challenges. The urgent need to remove debris after events like hurricanes often leads to the disposal of waste in unapproved areas, creating significant environmental concerns.

3.5 Perspectives on current management inefficiencies and the way forward

In determining the most effective strategies to address illegal dumping and marine litter in Grenada, it is crucial to consider the insights gleaned from interviews, which highlight the blurred lines between legal and illegal dumping (the grey areas), and insights on the way forward.

3.5.1 The grey areas between legal and illegal dumping.

Numerous existing management inefficiencies stem from the ambiguity in what constitutes illegal dumping somewhat creating a grey area (i.e., an ambiguous zone where the distinction between legal and illegal waste disposal is unclear). The perpetrator’s cognitive rationalizations contribute to the difficulty of navigating the grey area, potentially leading to deviations from ethically appropriate behaviour. However, it could be argued that the issue is not so much about the existence of a grey area, but rather the individual’s inclination to create excuses for not adhering to ethical waste disposal practices. The study identified several ambiguous areas differentiating actual illegal dumping from the legal disposal of large quantities of waste. Table 1 illustrates these grey areas in thematic form, indicating which country, as represented by the interview participants, identified or related to each theme.

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Table 1. Themes in grey areas across countries.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000175.t001

Navigating the fine line between legal and illegal dumping is often complex, influenced by various factors including the actions of both perpetrators and relevant authorities. These include delayed waste collection by authorities, causing residents to resort to illegal means; temporary or scheduled legal communal waste sites, which refers to designated areas where people can legally dispose of bulk waste, but only during specific times or schedules. If someone dumps waste outside these designated times, it can be considered illegal and according to Participant 3,

“often times trash left outside of the scope of pickup is rummaged by chickens dogs, cats or enters quickly into the drainage system and into the sea, so that’s why sometimes you’ll see like pampas in the ocean. That likely didn’t stem from massive illegal dump but from something as simple as dumping outside of the window of collection.”

This setup can lead to confusion about what is legal and what is considered illegal dumping. Essentially, while these sites offer a legal way to dispose of large amounts of waste, the restrictions on when dumping is allowed can make it unclear for some people, potentially leading to unintentional illegal dumping. Additionally, ambiguous waste management regulations fail to address "what to do if" scenarios, creating confusion and potential for illegal practices. A notable example is from Barbados, where interviewees consistently reported similar challenges. The issue arises with the use of skips, which are often rented for personal use but become communal dumping grounds. This situation blurs the lines of illegal dumping; while it is not lawful for individuals to offload large amounts of trash into another’s private skip, the definition of what constitutes an excessive amount is unclear. For instance,

“if someone disposes of a large bag of household waste in a skip because it is routinely scattered by animals (when left outside their home for collection), does this act cross into illegal dumping? The ambiguity of these regulations leaves room for interpretation and potentially unethical practices, highlighting the need for clearer guidelines in waste management.”- Participant 7

A lack of enforcement of existing laws further exacerbates illegal dumping, as it creates a perception that the act is acceptable. Furthermore, the urgency and lack of guidelines for post-disaster waste disposal often result in illegal dumping. Lastly, there are instances of disguised illegal dumping, such as through land reclamation or by mixing waste with natural materials, often under the guise of coastal barriers. These factors collectively contribute to the complexity and prevalence of illegal dumping practices.