1. Introduction

Considering that natural disasters compromise social health and welfare, providing affordable health care is one of the main factors influencing survival, reduced mortality, and increased welfare of the people after the occurrence of such incidents[1–3]. In such situations, a quick and effective health response is needed beyond the usual emergency response [4–6].

Nurses play a crucial active role in managing disaster situations. Their caring role causes community members to trust them and they have the expertise to deliver clinical care, team leadership, creative problem-solving skills, resource management, as well as having important communication skills in situations of rapid changes[7].

According to some studies, nurses who work in disasters experience many problems such as safety concerns [3,8], stress and fatigue [8], and ethical challenges [8–10]. Nurses in disaster situations, must be sufficiently prepared for the situation, and they always have more problems and challenges in their work [11].

Some studies have shown that the problems nurses are passing through during disasters include psychological problems such as stress from work, health problems, family problems, organizational problems, poor coordination, and problems such as low awareness of people [9,12,13]. Five issues regarding working in disaster situations have been explored by Wenji (2014) including insurmountable challenges, the qualities of a disaster nurse, mental health and trauma, poor disaster planning and co-ordination, and urgently needed disaster education[10].

While Iran experiences significant disasters annually[14,15], there are limited studies in the field of disaster nursing that explore their problems[16–18]. Uncovering nurses’ experiences regarding disaster relief is important to inform future relief efforts and the development of programs to enable nurses participate with some confidence in future events[19].

Since process of providing care in disasters is a phenomenon that consists human relationships, action-interactions, and emotions that could not be assessed by quantitative approaches, qualitative method was selected as an approach. By qualitative approaches, we can observe phenomenon from the eyes of the participants, and the hidden aspects of phenomenon can be explored[20]. Therefore, the researchers decided to conduct a study to explore the experiences and perceptions of nurses who have served in times of disaster in Iran in order to identify their real problems and challenges. In this way, a clearer picture of the experiences and difficulties faced by nurses while providing care in special situations, such as disasters, is available as a basis for planning and policy-making in the health care system, to provide appropriate quality service and ultimately decrease the people’s suffering.

2. Materials and methods

An inductive qualitative content analysis approach was used to analyze the data to attain a condensed and broad description of nurses’ experiences; the analysis outcomes were concepts or categories describing their experiences. In the present study, data were collected without assuming any previous hypothesis. The acquired data were based on the participants’ view. Codes and categories were obtained using the inductive process, conceptually ordered considering properties and dimensions were developed [21–23].

2.2. Data collection and analysis

The present qualitative study used content analysis as the research method for subjective interpretation of the interviews’ content, through a systematic classification of coding and identifying the concepts or patterns. The selection of participants was determined utilizing a purposive sampling method[20]. The participants were included if they had previous experience regarding healthcare in disasters. The subjects had various natural disasters experiences and also various positions. Fifteen interviews were conducted with experts and managers of disasters including 7 Nursing manager, and 8 nurses. Participants were within the age range of 34–51 years, with a mean age of 40.87 ± 5.14 years, and a mean working history of 15.4 ± 5.2 years (Table 1).

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Table 1. Participant characteristics.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181314.t001

Semi-structured interviews were utilized as the research instrument. Purposive sampling continued until the saturation point of each concept was reached, and further data collection failed to provide additional information; the sample size was determined by data saturation. The researcher continued to gather data until reaching the level of data saturation. Saturation is usually explained in terms of “when no new categories or relevant themes are emerging”. But saturation is more than a matter of no new categories or themes emerging. It is also denotes a development of categories in terms of their properties and dimensions, including variation, and possible relationships to other concepts. In other words, the aim of research is not just to come up with a list of categories. It is to tell us something about those categories. The understandings provided by the researcher must go beneath surface explanations[20]. On average, each interview lasted between 30 and 61 min, and they were conducted in Persian by the same interviewer; they were transcribed verbatim, and then translated into English. The content analysis was performed on the data written in Persian, before translation. The interview guide included a short list of general questions. This was used as a tool for initiating the interviews. During each interview, more specific questions were asked. Examples of the questions are: “What problems do you face during healthcare in disasters?” and “In the face of disasters what do you do?” In addition, complementary questions were added when necessary: ‘‘could you elaborate more on your experience?”

During the open coding phase, all of the interview texts were read several times, and the keywords, phrases, incidents, and facts were noted. The primary codes were extracted, and the codes and data were compared in order to find similarities and differences; afterwards, the categories and sub-categories were developed. A preliminary set of codes, categories, and sub-categories were formed from the first interview, and the emerging codes were considered as the results [21–23].

Considering the methodology of content analysis [21,22], the interviews were carried out by the same interviewer.

3. Results

Study participants were 15 nurses who had experience providing nursing intervention after a disaster, expertise in the field of disaster nursing and experience as a manager following recent Iranian disaster events. After data analysis, five main categories were extracted from the data: Afraid of probability of reccurence, necessity of providing healthcare services for an unknown period of time, challenge of what to prioritize, nurses’ own conflicting emotions, and their concern for their own families (Table 2). These categories with their subcategories have been explained below.

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Table 2. Examples of extracting of codes, sub categories, and categories from raw data.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181314.t002

4. Discussion

In this study, the five categories explored included the Afraid of probability of reccurence necessity of providing health care services for an unknown period of time, challenge of what to prioritize, nurses’ own conflicting emotions, and their concern for their own families. These concepts illustrate the problems nurses experience at the time of disasters to provide health care services for affected population. Some of categories include specific sub-categories, based on their distinct properties in a given category.

According to the results of this study, the first problem that nurses experience at the time of disaster was being worried about the possibility of event recurrence. In line with the results of this study, Schlenger & Jernigan (2003) described nurses emotions resulting from working in disaster situations to include fear, sorrow, uncertainty, and anger; and, clinically significant results may include PTSD and ASD[25].

In addition, O’Boyle (2006) discussed that nurses indicated they believe working during a bioterrorism event would be chaotic and frightening. Staff issues were also concerned about this [26]. Furthermore, Holloway et al. (1997) reported how the physical and safety needs of disaster workers will increase nurses’ workload and contribute to increased psychological distress [27]. Due to uncertainty in a disaster situation, nurses have a lot of stress, which should be reduced; also, Chang et al. (2006) in their study concluded that reduction of workplace stress and increase support for nurses can strengthen their mental health [28].

In this regard, exercise increase the tolerance level of individuals from the burden of disasters, especially in events like earthquakes[15]. Fu-jin (2002) reported that service providers after seeing severe destruction and experiencing a lack of control over the situation and the probability of the event, had severe fear and nightmares. These issues show the need to follow up nurses who have served in disasters on mental health problems[8].

In addition, Nekooei Moghaddam (2014) reported mental and psychological stress experienced by both traumatized people and caregivers. The anxiety of some caregivers has affected their performance[29].

Other studies have concluded that education and preparation of nurses is necessary to decrease emotional and psychological stress [26,30], and that nurses have to know how to reduce their stress [2]. Based on this, Chapman et al. (2008) reported that stress control for caregivers is one of the most important issues that should be taught in disaster workshops. They should also have access to consultation services [31].

The necessity of providing healthcare services for an unknown period of time was another problem that emerged in this study. Pre-hospital emergency care has specific problems because of the special conditions that increase the difficulties of working in this area.

The following study, though not in the same area, has some similarities to the results of this study; although the study was not exactly the point, but similarities can be seen in the results of some studies. For example in the study of Saberi Nia (2013), one of the important problems nurses in pre-hospital sites face is physical health problems resulting from factors such as the number of missions, as well as, there is a need for strong mental health in addition to the physical health of the workers. [13].

Furthermore, Wenji et al. (2015) reported that lack of disaster nursing experience was a major problem; and nurses had to be committed and try to be in good physical and psychological health to work competently. Ability to deal with environmental conditions was very important. Nurses said passing long distances to the disaster fields required patience and endurance and when they arrived they were too tired [10].

In this regard, Sebastian et al (2003) reported nurses experienced concerns about conditions of working in disasters, such as rest, and reported being on duty 24 h a day[32]. In addition, Pesik et al. (2001) stated that during a bioterrorism event, there may be an increased demand for infrequently used supplies, which could lead to a shortage of critically needed resources. Resources, including staff, can be overwhelmed by the large number of people seeking help with acute injuries, as well as the large number of people who may present demanding prophylactic treatment [33].

Nurses’ challenges regarding what to prioritize were another category that emerged in this study. Chinese nurses experiences in Wenji et al. (2015) revealed that participants tried to put personal feelings aside during their work, but faced ethical dilemmas when giving care[10].

It seems ethical issues that have been mentioned in different cultures are different.The moral conflict between professional ethics and survival by participants was discussed as giving care at the time of aftershocks, where personal safety was raised. Stay or flee in the face of hazard, was a matter of professional and ethical issues [34].

Unlike soldiers, firefighters and police officers, health care workers do not receive any training in hazardous environments and work under different professional and ethical dilemmas. Although they carry out their duties seriously, some participants had found themselves in situations full of moral challenges and they were not trained to deal with such situations. Unfortunately no attention has been paid to the moral preparedness of people who are at the forefront of service delivery in disasters [35].

In line with this, Aliakbari et al. (2015) in their study on ethical challenges associated with disaster nursing in Iran noted that one of sub-themes in this field was professional ethics that highlights how a disaster changes and challenges everyday nursing routine and practice. Despite this, nurses felt a professional obligation and responsibility that extends beyond their individual needs. It was observed that despite the conditions, nurses focused on professional and ethical responsibility. All nurses affirmed the importance of commitment and responsibility in their profession. They believed that disaster puts nurses in place beyond the normal scope of their activities [16].

Nurses’ own conflicting emotions was another category that emerged in this study. This important concept was not mentioned in other studies, but results of this kind have been seen in some studies. For example, Wenji et al. (2015) argued about how nurses are faced with many challenges about leaving injured elderly who refused to leave their homes being destroyed [10].

In addition, Riba & Reches (2002) reported Israeli nurses’ experiences and showed that they separated themselves entirely from their emotions. Their thoughts and feelings remained in the background just when he was feeling the harsh conditions they were shown. As soon as the last victim was treated, nurses start to reveal their feelings [36].

In almost all related studies, the first mental and primary concern of nurses was the safety of their families. Nekooei Moghaddam (2014) reported that nurses had said during their work they need to have confidence that their families have been supported[29]. In addition, French et al. (2002) noted that the nurses had experienced a conflict between family and work commitments, especially when they are simultaneously victims and caregivers. In response to Hurricane Floyd, nurses preferred to be with their families and had a lot of anxiety when they were forced away from their family members. Even some of them lost their jobs when they decided to stay with their families[37].

Moreover, in another study, nurses expressed concern over their personal safety, their family’s safety, family commitments, insufficient food, water, and resting facilities [26]. Communication with family was a particular concern during periods of quarantine or extended shifts [38,39]. Actually, communication with family members is a very important issue expressed by Australian aid workers and they suggested the creation of communication channels preset and strategies for contact with their loved ones could increase their willingness to participate in work at the time of incidents [39].

5. Conclusion

This study showed that various factors affect nurses when they provide health care services in disasters. In our study, five main categories emerged, which were the greatest concerns of disaster nurses. Often in disasters, nurses are expected to act in chaotic workplaces and provide direct care to patients affected by disasters. Stress in this situation will be heightened when nurses feel anxiety and fear for themselves and their families. Results revealed that nurses who feel better prepared, and had some understanding of moral implications of working under different standards of care, may be better suited for health care delivery in disasters. Those who had no choice about going to the disaster area or had less choice are more likely to have feelings such as lack of usefulness. In addition, the nurses’ training and preparation for disasters is essential to optimize the safe functioning and minimize the emotional and psychological trauma. Therefore, to explore the process of nursing preparedness further qualitative research, using a grounded theory, is recommended.

Supporting information

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to express their gratitude to all those who participated in this study.