The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Conceived and designed the experiments: UP SS AM PAM GM PS. Performed the experiments: UP SS AM. Analyzed the data: UP. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: UP AM PAM GM PS. Wrote the paper: UP SS.
Mycophiles forage for and pick vast quantities of a wide variety of wild mushroom species. As a result, mushroom intoxications are comparatively frequent in such countries with mycophiles. Thus, national governments are forced to release guidelines or enact legislation in order to ensure the safe commerce of wild mushrooms due to food safety concerns. It is in these guidelines and laws that one can observe whether a country is indeed mycophobic or mycophilic. Furthermore, these laws and guidelines provide valuable information on mushroom preferences and on the consumption habits of each country. As such we were interested in the questions as to whether mushroom consumption behaviour was different within Europe, and if it was possible to discover the typical or distinctive culinary preferences of Slavic or Romanic speaking people, people from special geographical regions or from different zones. This work is based on the analysis of edible mushroom lists available in specific guidelines or legislation related to the consumption and commerce of mushrooms in 27 European countries. The overall diversity of edible mushrooms authorised to be commercialised in Europe is very high. However, only 60 out of a total 268 fungal species can be cultivated. This highlights the importance of guidelines or legislation for the safe commerce of wild mushrooms. The species richness and composition of the mushrooms listed for commerce is very heterogeneous within Europe. The consumption behaviour is not only language-family-related, but is strongly influenced by geographical location and neighbouring countries. Indicator species were detected for different European regions; most of them are widespread fungi, and thus prove culture-specific preferences for these mushrooms. Our results highlight tradition and external input such as trade and cultural exchange as strong factors shaping mushroom consumption behaviour.
Mushrooms are a prised food in certain regions of the world, but are approached with suspicion in others. For example, there is a long history of collecting and eating wild mushrooms in countries and regions such as Southeast Asia, the Venezuelan Amazon, in Slavic countries and in Italy. The population of these countries are especially fond of mushrooms, and have therefore been labelled as mycophile
Our basic assumption was that countries with a mycophilic population had specific guidelines or legislation concerning the marketing of wild mushrooms, which include a comparatively large number of mushroom species; whereas countries with a mycophobic population, either had guidelines or legislation including very few mushroom species, or covered the risk posed from all food groups, which includes mushrooms brought to the market, by the EU General Food Law – general legislation which bans food harmful to the consumer.
Harvesting and marketing wild food, including mushrooms, is of a growing interest in most countries now. We were therefore especially interested in the question if and how mushroom consumption behaviour differs between European countries, and if these differences are culture-related. We approached these questions by analysing and comparing guidelines or legislation concerning the commercialisation of mushrooms in European countries. Our investigation has enormous implications on mushroom guidelines and legislation; this is because mushroom consumption behaviour has been addressed in a large geographical context for the first time. We detected significant differences in mushroom culinary traditions within Europe. They are clearly related to culture in a geographical context, and are strongly influenced by the region due to trade and cultural exchanges.
This work is based on the analysis of guidelines or legislation dealing with the commercialisation of mushrooms in 42 European countries. They were either retrieved directly from the World Wide Web, or requested from resident mycologists based in the respective European country: These individuals provided the requested information, or informed us that guidelines or legislation were not available in their country (
Legislation (16) | Guidelines (7) | No lists |
No information (12) |
Austria | Belgium | Bulgaria | Albania |
Belarus | Portugal | Estonia | Andorra |
Bosnia and Herzegovina | Ukraine | Germany | Czech Republic |
Croatia | Greece | Cyprus | |
Finland |
Hungary | Kosovo | |
France | Ireland | Liechtenstein | |
Italy | Lithuania | Luxemburg | |
Macedonia | Latvia | Malta | |
Montenegro | N |
Netherlands | Moldavia |
Poland | Denmark | Slovenia | Monaco |
Rumania | Finland | United Kingdom | San Marino |
Russia | Iceland | Turkey | |
Serbia | Norway | ||
Slovakia | Sweden | ||
Spain | Faroe Islands | ||
Sweden | Greenland | ||
Switzerland | Åland |
List valid until 1.7.2012, now EVIRA (Finnish Food Safety Authority Evira) only makes recommendations of the species (the list is about the same as the earlier list), which can go to market, but all edible mushrooms can be on sale. Moreover, also the guidelines of the Nordic Co-operation cover Finland.
Some countries have legislation concerning mushroom picking and nature conservation.
European mushroom-specific regulations are either guideline or legislation based on traditional, mycological background, and on risk assessment. Mushroom legislation is national e.g. in Austria, Belarus, Poland, Russia, Slovakia, Spain, Switzerland etc. Italy has a national list, used in conjunction, with additional regional lists for departments or political regions, accounting for the local culinary preferences of the population. France's current legislation is decentralised, the list presented here is based on prefectoral orders (8 departments) and municipal orders (43 municipalities)
In countries of former Yugoslavia, Croatia was the first country to regulate the exploitation of wild mushrooms for commercial use. Other countries mostly followed Croatian example, but they adapted the regulations according to their specific local situation. With the exception of Slovenia, all the countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia) have included the lists of the species of mushrooms that are allowed for commercialisation in their legislature.
Finally, a list of all edible mushroom taxa authorised to be sold commercially in Europe was compiled based on 22 European lists. Mushroom names were carefully revised concerning synonymies and different genus attributions (e.g.
There are significant differences in the composition of European country mushroom lists, as some countries, e.g. Switzerland, list mushroom species, which are nowadays mostly cultivated together with wild mushroom species, whilst other countries, such as Croatia and France, list only wild edible species. However, only 22% of all edible mushroom species are cultivated fungi; moreover these were found not to significantly influence our analyses, and where therefore included in the list for the sake of thoroughness.
PC-ORD 6
More than half (23) of 46 European countries have guidelines or legislation concerning the consumption and commercialisation of mushrooms. Eleven countries do not have mushroom-specific guidelines or legislation, although some of them have legislation concerning mushroom picking and nature conservation. No information was available from twelve countries (
At first glance, it is striking that some countries with a Germanic-speaking population (Dutch, English, German) (
European countries with mushroom legislation or guidelines (green), without them (red), or with no information available (white).
Western European countries with mushroom legislation or guidelines are countries with a Romanic-speaking population (France, Italy, Portugal, Spain) or with Romanic-speaking minorities (Belgium, Switzerland). Most Eastern European countries with mushroom legislation or guidelines have a Slavic-speaking population (Belarus, Poland, Russia, Slovakia, Ukraine, countries from former-Yugoslavia). This suggests that the mycophilic attitude of the population could be culture-related, and thus be typical for Romanic and Slavic-speaking people. Indeed, mushrooms and their consumption are of a huge economic importance in countries with a mycophilic population. Mycophilic indigenous people collect and consume large quantities of many different species of wild mushrooms. Mushrooms are collected for recreation, they are freshly prepared or preserved in different ways, and they are sold or given away as a treasured gift
The diversity of mushroom species commercialised in Europe is amazingly high: a total of 268 fungal taxa are listed fit to be commercialised in 24 European countries (282 when also considering the new list proposed for France) (
The Basidiomycota are subdivided into Agaricales, Russulales, Boletales, Poroid Fungi and other groups of Basidiomycota (n = 268 species in 83 genera).
Only 60 of all the listed fungal taxa can be cultivated in commercial mushroom farms; all other species are wild mushrooms collected by mushroom pickers and sold on the market. This highlights the importance of guidelines or legislation for the safe commercialisation of wild mushrooms.
Mushroom lists published by European countries differ widely with respect to their comprehensiveness: they range from a minimum of 15 listed species (Serbia) to a maximum of 122 (compiled list France) (
Data are based on lists of specific mushroom legislation or guidelines.
European mushroom lists are also very heterogeneous when considering genera: they allow for the commercialisation from three (Republika Srpska) to 56 (France) fungal genera (MW = 23, SD = 14, Median = 21).
However, species composition is especially very heterogeneous within European mushroom guidelines and legislation: all together, 268 mushroom taxa are listed in 83 genera (
In contrast, only half (134) of all the edible mushroom species are authorised to be commercialised in only in one or two European countries. This indicates that local tradition, predilection, and mushroom taste are very different throughout Europe. But are these culinary differences culture-related (e.g. related to language groups), due to geographical reasons (e.g. different climate, distribution of plants and their related fungi), due to influence from neighbouring countries (trade), or just random?
The most mycophilic Europeans live in the Southwest- and in Central Europe, and that they are predominantly Romance-speaking. This initial hypothesis was confirmed by the quantitative analyses of European mushroom lists: Mushroom markets in the west of Europe are significantly more species rich and diverse than those in the east of Europe; and the latter are more diverse than mushroom markets in former-Yugoslavian countries. These quantitative factors were also statistically significant when focussing on geographically distinct regions: Countries in SE Europe have significantly less mushroom species and a lower diversity authorised for commerce than countries in Central- and SW Europe, but differences to Eastern Europe and the Nordic Co-operation were not significant. Lists from Slavic speaking countries were less diverse than from Romance speaking countries, but these differences were not significant (
Groups were made based on Language family, Geography and Neighbouring countries. Language family (Romance = France, Italy, Portugal, Romania, Spain; Slavic = Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, Ukraine, Russia); Geography (Central Europe = Austria, Belgium, Switzerland; Southwest Europe = France, Italy, Portugal, Spain; Nordic Co-operation = Finland, Nordic Co-operation, Sweden; Eastern Europe = Belarus, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Ukraine; Southeast Europe = Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Republika Srpska); Neighbouring countries (West = Austria, Belgium, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, Nordic = Nordic Co-operation, Sweden; East = Belarus, Finland, Poland, Russia, Romania, Slovakia, Ukraine. Former Yugoslavia = Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Republika Srpska. a, b: significant differences.
Groups were made based on Language family, Geography and Neighbouring countries. Language family (Romance = France, Italy, Portugal, Romania, Spain; Slavic = Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, Ukraine, Russia); Geography (Central Europe = Austria, Belgium, Switzerland; Southwest Europe = France, Italy, Portugal, Spain; Nordic Co-operation = Finland, Nordic Co-operation, Sweden; Eastern Europe = Belarus, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Ukraine; Southeast Europe = Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Republika Srpska); Neighbouring countries (West = Austria, Belgium, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, Nordic = Nordic Co-operation, Sweden; East = Belarus, Finland, Poland, Russia, Romania, Slovakia, Ukraine. Former Yugoslavia = Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Republika Srpska. a, b: significant differences.
When considering qualitative aspects, we found that geographical location and the influence of neighbouring states were very strong drivers for the species composition of lists for mushroom commerce (
Category | Pairwise Comparison of Groups | p | |
Geography | Central Europe vs. Nordic Co-operation | 0.0227 | |
Central vs. Eastern Europe | 0.0510 | ||
Central vs. SE Europe | 0.0046 | ||
Central vs. SW Europe | 0.1610 | ||
Eastern Europe vs. Nordic Co-operation | 0.0497 | ||
Eastern vs. SE Europe | 0.0005 | ||
Eastern vs. SW Europe | 0.0108 | ||
SW Europe vs. Nordic Co-operation | 0.0122 | ||
SW vs. SE Europe | 0.0025 | ||
Language familiy | Germanic vs. Mixed | 0.0000 | |
Germanic vs. Romance | 0.0597 | ||
Germanic vs. Slavic | 0.0774 | ||
Romance vs. Mixed | 0.5421 | ||
Slavic vs. Mixed | 0.0854 | ||
Slavic vs. Romance | 0.0238 | ||
Neighbouring | Eastern vs. Former Yugoslavia | 0.0005 | |
Western vs. Eastern | 0.0008 | ||
Western vs. Former Yugoslavia | 0.0001 |
p≤0.05;
p≤0.005;
p≤0.0005.
MRPP for geography = Central-, Eastern-, SW-Europe, SE-Europe, Scandinavia; A = 0.1541, p = 0.0000 ***.
MRPP for language families = Germanic, Mixed, Romance, Slavic: A = 0.0595, p = 0.0180 *.
MRPP for neighbouring countries = West, East, Former Yugoslavia: A = 0.1145, p = 0.0000 ***.
Language group was also a significant factor shaping mushroom preferences, but was dependent on geography and proximity: (
Language groups are coded with different colours. (NMS Distance measure: Sorensen, random starting, 500 iterations, 250 with real data, 9.85462 = final stress for a 2-dimensional solution. Axis 1: 63.3% of variance based on r2, Axis 2: 19.3% of variance).
Category | Pairwise Comparison of Groups | p | |
Geography | Central vs. Eastern Europe | 0.2143 | |
Central vs. Nordic Co-operation | 0.0361 | ||
Central vs. SE Europe | 0.0476 | ||
Central vs. SW Europe | 0.1771 | ||
Eastern Europe vs. Nordic Co-operation | 0.1990 | ||
Eastern vs. SE Europe | 0.0013 | ||
Eastern vs. SW Europe | 0.0303 | ||
Nordic Co-operation vs. SW Europe | 0.0323 | ||
SE Europe vs. Nordic Co-operation | 0.0084 | ||
SE vs. SW Europe | 0.0098 | ||
Neighbouring countries | West vs. East | 0.0125 | |
West vs. Former Yugoslavia | 0.0000 | ||
East vs. Former Yugoslavia | 0.0007 |
p≤0.05;
p≤0.005;
p≤0.0005.
MRPP for Geography = Central-, Eastern-, SW-Europe, SE-Europe, Nordic Co-operation: A = 0.15688418, p = 0.0002 ***.
MRPP for Neighbouring countries = West, East, Former Yugoslavia: A = 0.1259, p = 0.0001 ***.
We concluded that Europe harbours at least four different traditions related to the consumption of edible mushrooms. One mycophobic tradition (Germanic-speaking countries), as well as several mycophilic traditions with different mushroom predilections: one group of Romance-speaking countries in Western Europe, two groups of predominantly Slavic-speaking people in Eastern Europe, and the Nordic Co-operation countries. The significant differences in mushroom taste between the populations of these countries are due to geographical separation, e.g. by mycophobic countries, and due to language and cultural barriers. This has enormous implications, as it highlights the cultural significance and the influence of external input on mushroom consumption behaviour: people speaking different language groups value different edible mushroom species for many different reasons. Culture has also been shown to be a crucial factor shaping traditional mycological knowledge in Mexico: the Zapotec indigenous population attribute different fungal species with different values in taste, food use, health and economy
The population of different European regions differs clearly in their consumption behaviour of wild mushrooms (
A very interesting aspect of this work was to discover typical, distinctive culinary preferences of Slavic or Romanic speaking people, of people from special geographical regions or from different zones: such indicator species or indicator genera reflect both, the different taste of the mushroom consumer, and the different know-how of mushroom cooking and preservation. Moreover, different collecting habits (e.g. collecting hypogeous fungi with the help of dogs or pigs) can also be differentiated.
Romanic-speaking people living in the west of Europe collect and consume significantly more species of the genera
Indicator genus | Category | Group | p |
|
Geography | SW Europe | 0.0170 | ||
Central Europe | 0.0130 | |||
Central Europe | 0.0128 | |||
Language family | Romance | 0.0138 | ||
Romance | 0.0048 | |||
Neighbours | West | 0.0002 | ||
West | 0.0072 | |||
West | 0.0012 | |||
West | 0.0136 | |||
West | 0.0104 | |||
West | 0.0064 | |||
West | 0.0002 | |||
West | 0.0014 | |||
West | 0.0126 | |||
West | 0.0010 | |||
East | 0.0022 |
Only significant p-values <0.02 are shown.
p≤0.05;
p≤0.005;
p≤0.0005.
Indicator species | Category | Group | p |
|
Geography | Nordic Co-operation | 0.0014 | ||
Nordic Co-operation | 0.0050 | |||
Nordic Co-operation | 0.0022 | |||
Nordic Co-operation | 0.0022 | |||
Nordic Co-operation | 0.0022 | |||
Nordic Co-operation | 0.0034 | |||
SE Europe | 0.0092 | |||
SE Europe | 0.0092 | |||
SE Europe | 0.0092 | |||
SE Europe | 0.0092 | |||
SE Europe | 0.0092 | |||
SW Europe | 0.0014 | |||
Neighbours | East | 0.0062 | ||
East | 0.0060 | |||
East | 0.0014 | |||
East | 0.0018 | |||
East | 0.0030 | |||
West | 0.0002 | |||
West | 0.0010 | |||
West | 0.0070 | |||
West | 0.0004 | |||
West | 0.0092 | |||
West | 0.0096 | |||
West | 0.0096 | |||
West | 0.0026 | |||
Former Yugoslavia | 0.0026 |
Only highly significant p-values <0.001 are shown.
p≤0.05;
p≤0.005;
p≤0.0005.
Indicator species also permitted us to test our hypothesis, e.g. that the detected mushroom preference is not only related to the fungal distribution (which often follows the distribution of ectomycorrhizal host plants and is therefore climate-related). Most of the detected indicator species, e.g.
When considering collecting habits or know-how of mushroom preparation, Romance-speaking people in the west of Europe, for instance, collect morels during spring, an unusual season for mushroom picking; moreover, people from Northern Europe know how to prepare
Mushroom guidelines or legislation have been and are being changed and adapted all the time: they must incorporate new scientific findings, and they have to meet changes to risk requirements or a change in the consumption behaviour of the population. Advice or statements on mushroom edibility are often based on traditions, on empirical experience based on mixed mushroom dishes, but not on toxicological risk assessment. Based on new scientific findings, several fungal species have recently been removed from some European lists of edible mushrooms: the most striking case concerns cases of massive rhabdomyolysis, removed since 1993 in France and 2001 in Poland. This new mushroom intoxication syndrome occurred after the ingestion of large amounts of an edible and, until then, valuable species called
The commerce of fresh and preserved wild mushrooms is very important in countries with a mycophilic population. This is reflected by a comparatively large number of mushroom species on their lists for the commercialisation of wild mushrooms, and by the large number of poisoning cases in mycophilic cultures
Mushroom commerce is not a topic of general interest in countries with a mycophobic population. Only a few species of edible mushrooms are usually traded in such countries, most of them being cultivated or imported. However, food harvested from the wild including mushrooms, is of a growing interest in most countries. Therefore, guidelines based on risk assessment are also of importance for countries with a mycophobic population, especially because there is less appropriate knowledge on a safe consumption of wild mushrooms. Such guidelines guarantee food safety, and are therefore especially important for mushroom trade.
Mushrooms can be a big business: 100 metric tons of fresh mushrooms were sold per year alone in the city of Milano from 1919 onward
Mushroom pickers sell their bounty to local restaurants and foreign markets. New markets are opening up all the time, and in consequence of globalisation the least popular species consumed in countries with a mycophobic population are likely to rise. Moreover, new global trends such as “sustainable eating” or “healthy eating” change consumption behaviour, bringing more mushrooms and mushroom products onto the consumer's plate. However, the processes of internationalisation and cultural homogenisation can also result in a reduced diversity and in changing positions of mushroom species in gastronomy: wild mushrooms are very important in Italian culinary tradition. Wild mushroom markets have therefore flourished in Italy for centuries, but preferences and consumption behaviour were regionally very different before the 20th century. From then on, Italy has emerged as a focal point of a global market for a small number of mushroom species, especially porcini. This has caused nationalisation in culinary fashion, coming at the expense of differing, localised mushroom traditions
The five top-selling edible fungi (
It would make sense if the European Commission evaluated individual national legislation on edible mushrooms. In doing so it could propose education, identification and safety evaluation, and perhaps draft guidelines and legislation for edible and, maybe more importantly, for potentially toxic species. A European guidance list including all edible mushroom species currently commercialised in European countries could be a meaningful, foundation for national lists, which include a selection of species: most of our 268 fungal species on the list only have local significance as edible mushrooms: half of the mushrooms are sold in one or two European countries only. National lists rely on a traditional mycological knowledge present in the population of one cultural group, but not present in another. Local market dealers must have basic skills in mushroom identification, as well as a knowledge of any special treatment required by certain species before consumption
References for information concerning legislation or guidelines on the commercialisation of wild mushrooms in 42 European countries.
(DOCX)
Edible fungal species listed in European countries concerning the commercialisation of wild mushrooms. The list also provides information whether the mushroom can be cultivated or not, on the taxonomic affiliation and on the percentage of European lists where since 2012. Potentially toxic fungal species are marked (+). The list includes also the old Switzerland list valid until 2012. This latter list was not used for analyses, but is for information only. The total number of edible mushrooms species on the respective list is provided in the second line, n = 268, but n = 282 until Switzerland changed the list in 2012. Abbreviations: A: Ascomycota, B: Basidiomycota, B_A: B_Agaricales, B_Au: B_Auriculariales, B_B: B_Boletales, B_G: B_Gasteromycetes, B_C: B_Cantharellales, B_P: B_Poroid, B_R: B_Russulales, B_T: B_Tremellales.
(XLSX)
Fungal genera reported in 22 European lists concerning the commercialisation of mushrooms. The number of species of the respective genus allowed for a specific country is provided. The list also provides information whether the mushroom can be cultivated or not, and on the taxonomic affiliations. Abbreviations: A: Ascomycota, B: Basidiomycota, B_A: B_Agaricales, B_Au: B_Auriculariales, B_B: B_Boletales, B_G: B_Gasteromycetes, B_C: B_Cantharellales, B_P: B_Poroid, B_R: B_Russulales, B_T: B_Tremellales.
(XLSX)
We are grateful to Reinhard Agerer, Eef Arnolds, J. L. Baptista-Ferreira, Francesco Bellú, Emidio Borghi, Frank Dämmrich, Cvetomir M. Denchev, Stefanos Diamandis, Sally Evans, Marco Floriani, Ulf Gärdenfors, Vera Hajova, Klaus Høiland, Daniele Inita, Boris Ivančević, László Jáger, Nedim Jukić, Mitko Karadelev, Gordana Kasom, Jonas Kasparavičius, Heikki Kotiranta, Alexander Kovalenko, Ellen Larsson, Victor Mukhin, Andrej Piltaver, Irja Saar, Dirk Stubbe, Catalin Tanase, Andy Taylor, Annemieke Verbeken, and Eugene Yurchenko for providing information relating to national list of commercialised edible mushrooms. We thank Jean-Pierre Augst, René Chalange, Jean-Pierre Fombeur, Jean-Marc Moingeon, Jean Pisot and Jean Rovéa for information on the French mushroom legislation. I am especially grateful to Bente Fabech for her comments on the paper and on mushroom legislation and guidelines in general. This paper would not have been possible without the support of the European Mycological Community. We would like to especially thank Regina Kuhnert for proof reading the article and for her helpful comments.