Design

This study employs a descriptive qualitative research design within the framework of an embedded case study, focusing on ECD challenges within T/A Zilakoma, Nkhata Bay South Constituency. The case study design enables an in-depth exploration of ECD practices across multiple schools within the region, providing rich insights into the localized challenges that teachers and stakeholders face. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with ECD teachers from six schools, community members, and officials to capture their perspectives and experiences. Thematic analysis was used to identify recurring patterns and themes across these embedded units, offering a comprehensive description of the ECD landscape within this case. The study design ensured meticulous attention to ethical considerations, adhering to protocols and guidelines for research involving human participants. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, ensuring voluntary participation and safeguarding their confidentiality and anonymity throughout the research process.

Sample size and description

There were 25 respondents in this study. Table 1 is a demographic summary of the sample.

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Table 1. A demographic summary of the sample.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314530.t001

Sampling technique

The study employed purposive sampling to select participants with relevant and diverse experiences in ECD, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the ECD landscape. Participants were drawn from key groups, including ECD teachers, community members, welfare department officers, and Ministry of Education officials, chosen for their direct involvement in ECD activities and insights into the field.

Diversity in demographic background, professional roles, and geographic location was prioritized to capture various perspectives. Participants were selected based on their active engagement in ECD, with an emphasis on those possessing substantial experiential knowledge relevant to the study’s objectives. This included both frontline educators and administrative officials, allowing for exploring practical and policy-related insights. This method aligned with the research objectives, aiming to capture multifaceted experiences related to ECD recruitment, roles, and support mechanisms.

Additionally, efforts were made to ensure gender balance across the sample, ensuring equal representation of male and female participants in each group, except among the teachers/caregivers, who were all females in all the six ECD centers involved.

Data collection

The data collection instruments for this study were carefully designed to capture in-depth insights into ECD practices. A structured in-depth interview guide and an observation checklist were developed and tested for validity through a pilot study, ensuring they effectively aligned with the research objectives. Additionally, field notes were used during both interviews and observations to document non-verbal cues, environmental context, and other relevant details that may not have been captured by audio recordings alone.

Two high school teachers, who were native speakers of Tonga, were specially trained as professional enumerators. Their training included cultural sensitivity to ensure smooth communication and accurate interpretation of both verbal and non-verbal cues, allowing for appropriate coding and decoding of participant responses. In addition, the study incorporated two natives from the catchment area who were fluent in the local dialects. This not only facilitated a deeper understanding during data collection but also fostered a greater sense of identity and trust between the respondents and enumerators, enhancing the overall quality of the responses.

Data collection took place over a four-month period, from July 3rd, 2022, to October 28th, 2022, following ethical clearance obtained in June 2022. Interviews were conducted using the in-depth interview guide, and observations were made using the checklist, with the enumerators documenting both verbal responses and additional field notes. All interviews were audio-recorded with participants’ consent, ensuring accuracy while maintaining confidentiality.

The sample size was determined by data saturation among the ECD teachers, ensuring that the point at which no new information was emerging had been reached. This approach provided comprehensive and representative insights into the varied experiences within the ECD landscape. The collected data underwent systematic thematic analysis to identify key patterns and themes, contributing valuable insights into ECD practices and challenges in the region.

During the data collection process, several challenges emerged that required mitigation strategies to ensure successful data gathering. Key challenges included potential biases in participant responses, logistical constraints, and the need to create a conducive interview environment.

Mitigating biases was essential to ensure data authenticity. The trained enumerators adopted neutral stances during interviews, fostering an open and non-judgmental atmosphere that encouraged honest responses. Building rapport with participants before the interviews further enhanced trust and reduced potential biases in their responses.

Logistical constraints, including travel and scheduling conflicts, were managed through careful planning and flexibility. The researchers worked around participants’ schedules and often conducted interviews at convenient times and locations, ensuring full participation.

Creating a conducive environment for interviews was crucial for obtaining candid responses. Privacy and confidentiality were prioritized, with interviews held in comfortable and neutral locations to make participants feel at ease. Ethical standards were strictly followed, with oral informed consent obtained from all participants and recorded using voice recorders with their full knowledge. For minors observed during “classes,” caregivers or teachers provided oral consent, which was similarly documented.

Data analysis

The methodological approach adopted for this study involved a systematic process encompassing several interconnected stages to derive a comprehensive thematic analysis from the interview responses. Audio data were transcribed into written form, allowing for a comprehensive review and understanding of the content.

We recruited two professional transcribers who did not know each other and vetted each other’s work for accuracy. However, they were informed of the “collaboration.” Following transcription, the process involved familiarization with the data, whereby a thorough review of the responses was conducted to gain a nuanced understanding of the information provided. The transcripts were translated into English, a step pivotal in preparing for the subsequent phases of analysis.

Data was then imported into Atlas 23 for a thematic analysis in which all the documents were imported. The approach pertains to discerning, scrutinizing, categorizing, explicating, and documenting recurring patterns and concepts in our data. The thematic analysis was an intermediary for us, employing distinct qualitative and quantitative analytic approaches facilitating effective communication and understanding between them [37]. The chosen methodology was based on recognizing that a thorough theme analysis could yield reliable and profound discoveries [37]. Besides, this versatile methodological approach was utilized to find, analyze, and interpret recurring themes or patterns within our datasets to gain a comprehensive knowledge of the data presented in the interviews, as the methodology enabled insights into individuals’ experiences, attitudes, and behaviors on a comprehensive scale. Utilizing a subjective method enabled the establishment of connections between several hypotheses [38,39]. Subsequent to familiarization, an initial coding process was initiated, involving identifying recurring themes or patterns present within the responses. Codes were assigned to specific excerpts or quotes that pertained to similar thematic areas, facilitating the organization and grouping of related content.

The data were further analyzed to develop preliminary themes after the initial coding phase. This process involved collating the coded excerpts into broader thematic categories based on the identified patterns. An iterative approach was adopted to review and refine these themes, ensuring the comprehensive coverage and accuracy of the analysis. Additionally, cross-validation was conducted to check for consistency and coherence of themes across different participant groups, validating the robustness of the identified themes.

Throughout the analytical process, representative quotations from each participant group were integrated under respective thematic categories to elaborate and support the identified themes. This step was crucial in providing illustrative evidence and grounding the analysis within the context of the interviews. Besides, sentiment mining helped interpret the data more [40,41]. The finalized analysis was structured cohesively and coherently, ensuring a detailed representation of findings to present a comprehensive understanding of the data derived from the interviews.

Ethical clearance

This study was cleared by the Mzuzu University Research Ethics Committee under the project of “Performance in the Malawian Education System: Who is the smartest,” with approval reference number Ref No: MZUNIREC/DOR/21/55.

Theme 1: recruitment practices

Limited oversight in recruitment and service quality

When asked whether welfare officers are involved in the recruitment of caregivers, participants consistently indicated that there is little to no oversight from these officials. Teachers and community members pointed out that welfare officers rarely engage in the recruitment process, leaving this responsibility largely in the hands of local communities, without formal guidance or oversight.

The welfare officers don’t really get involved when we recruit caregivers. It’s more of a community-driven process, and they’re not around to give us any support.–Welfare Department Officer 2

This quote underscores the informal nature of recruitment practices, with minimal intervention or oversight from welfare officers. The lack of a formalized recruitment structure perpetuates the reliance on volunteerism and community recommendations, with no standardized guidelines in place to ensure the quality of teachers being recruited. This reliance on informal practices creates a fragmented recruitment system that struggles to maintain quality and consistency in ECD staffing.

In fact, there is no formal structure, and it is often community-driven.–Ministry of Education Officer 1

This sentiment from a Ministry of Education official highlights the broader systemic issue where the absence of formal recruitment processes is accepted as the norm. Without institutionalized standards, the quality and consistency of recruitment are compromised, creating a significant risk to the overall effectiveness of the ECD programs.

The absence of a formal recruitment structure raises concerns about the consistency and fairness of the recruitment process. Without clear guidelines or standardized criteria, there may be a disconnect between the qualifications or capabilities of those recruited and the needs of the educational programs they are expected to support. This lack of structure hinders the development of a professional teaching workforce and limits the effectiveness of ECD initiatives.

Field notes and observations supported these findings, as no welfare officers were observed participating in recruitment-related activities at any of the schools visited. This lack of oversight and structure leads to inefficiencies in ensuring that those recruited have the necessary skills or training for their roles, potentially impacting the overall quality of ECD services.

Theme 2: Role ambiguity

The theme of role ambiguity reveals the lack of formal role definitions for teachers, where the terms of reference (TORs) are loosely defined and duties remain unspecified. Interviews consistently indicated that, rather than operating within a structured framework, teachers often take on flexible and informal roles, shaped by immediate needs and their willingness to help. This absence of clear role definitions leads to disorganized and inconsistent practices, with teachers left to determine their responsibilities without guidance.

There’s no clear outline; we just do what we can to teach and care for the children.–ECD Teacher

This statement underscores the lack of formal role definitions, with teachers engaging in activities based on what they can manage rather than on predetermined tasks or expectations. The participant’s remark suggests that this flexibility can lead to varying approaches in teaching and caregiving, ultimately resulting in inconsistencies in the quality of services provided.

Teachers take care of kids without a formal list of duties.–Community Member 1

A community member’s observation supports the theme, noting that teachers operate without specific guidelines or responsibilities. The lack of a formal duty list creates confusion about what is expected of ECD teachers, potentially leading to unequal task distribution. As a result, some teachers may take on more responsibilities while others may do less, further contributing to operational disorganization.

- “No defined TORs, responsibilities based on willingness.”–Welfare Department Officer 1

The welfare department officer emphasized that teachers’ roles are often determined by their personal willingness rather than a formal assignment of duties. This raises concerns about accountability and efficiency, as teachers may not fully understand their professional responsibilities and may prioritize tasks based on preference rather than institutional needs.

Roles seem flexible, not outlined formally.–Ministry of Education Officer 1

A ministry official also noted the flexibility in roles, acknowledging that while adaptability might be beneficial in certain situations, the absence of formal structure compromises organization and the effective delivery of educational services. Without formal guidelines, it becomes challenging to ensure that all aspects of teaching and childcare are addressed in a cohesive manner.

Field observations and notes corroborated the thematic analysis on role ambiguity. Teachers were observed performing multiple unrelated tasks—ranging from administrative duties to caregiving—without clear distinctions between roles. This lack of formal structure in daily operations was evident across various settings. The reliance on volunteerism and the absence of formal training further mirrored the participants’ accounts of inadequate support systems, validating the challenges related to role ambiguity and informal recruitment practices.

The consistency between the observational data and the interview insights strengthens the overall analysis. It provides a comprehensive understanding of how role ambiguity and undefined responsibilities negatively affect the operational effectiveness of ECD programs, reinforcing the need for clear role definitions and structured support systems to enhance teacher efficiency and program quality.

Theme 3: Informal evaluation processes

The theme of Informal Evaluation Processes highlights the absence of structured monitoring and evaluation mechanisms in the programs. The data consistently revealed that monitoring relied heavily on occasional, unstructured visits from welfare officers and informal feedback, with no standardized procedures in place to assess the performance or outcomes of the programs. This lack of formalized evaluation protocols severely undermines the ability to systematically track progress, identify areas for improvement, or ensure accountability in the delivery of ECD services.

Occasional visits from welfare officers, but no structured evaluation.–ECD Teacher 1

This statement illustrates the sporadic nature of the evaluation process, indicating that welfare officers visit occasionally but do not adhere to any consistent or formalized plan. The teacher’s observation emphasizes that the reliance on these unstructured visits means that key aspects of the program’s effectiveness may go unaddressed, potentially leaving critical issues unresolved.

Occasional checks, no formal process.–Community Member 1

Similarly, a community member reinforces the theme of informality by acknowledging that evaluation is limited to occasional checks without any formalized structure. This lack of systematic evaluation processes likely leads to an incomplete assessment of the program’s effectiveness, as there is no comprehensive or regular review of key performance indicators. The absence of a formal evaluation framework limits the ability to understand the full scope of the program’s successes or failures.

Occasional subjective visits for monitoring.–Welfare Department Officer 1

The welfare officer’s quote confirms that not only are the visits occasional, but they are also subjective in nature. Without standardized criteria for evaluation, the monitoring process becomes heavily dependent on individual judgment. This can lead to inconsistent assessments, as different welfare officers may have varying perspectives on what constitutes success or areas for improvement. This subjectivity further undermines the potential for consistent and objective evaluation across different visits.

Limited monitoring, occasional visits.–Ministry of Education Officer 1

From the perspective of the Ministry of Education, the use of the word “limited” underscores the insufficient scope of the monitoring process. Monitoring is not only infrequent, but the occasional visits fail to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the program’s overall performance. The lack of structured follow-up or analysis limits the capacity to identify and address challenges systematically, reducing the program’s ability to improve in a meaningful way. Field observations further validated these findings, as there was no evidence of structured monitoring processes at any of the schools visited. Welfare officers and education officials made sporadic, informal visits with no clear follow-up or feedback loops in place. Community members, while actively involved in volunteer-driven aspects of the ECD programs, were not participating in any formal evaluation processes, reflecting a lack of accountability on both the governmental and community levels.

Theme 4: Training and professional development

Participants consistently pointed to the irregularity and infrequency of training sessions, which were often constrained by limited resources and organizational challenges. Training opportunities appeared to lack consistency and were sporadically offered, leaving many participants inadequately equipped for their roles. This absence of regular and structured training likely hindered the professional development of ECD teachers and staff, as well as the overall effectiveness of the program.

As indicated by an ECD teacher,

Rarely attend formal training, occasional sessions organized by Social Welfare.

This quote reflects the infrequency of formal training opportunities. The use of "rarely" underscores the scarcity of such sessions, indicating that teachers receive little formal professional development, which can limit their ability to effectively perform their duties.

A similar sentiment was echoed by a community member:

Not actively involved in their training.

This observation highlights the disengagement and passivity in the training process. The lack of active involvement suggests that there is little emphasis on continuous development, further compounding the problem of inadequate training provisions.

The Welfare Department Officer further clarified:

We organize sporadic sessions due to funding limitations.

This statement reveals the root cause of the inconsistency—funding constraints. The sporadic nature of training stems not from a lack of intent but rather from practical limitations, such as financial resources. This resource scarcity leads to irregular training schedules, leaving staff without the necessary opportunities to build and refine their skills.

Finally, the Ministry of Education Official commented:

Occasional workshops, limitations due to resources.

which confirms the broader systemic issue. The occasional nature of the workshops, coupled with resource constraints, reflects a broader problem where structural and financial barriers impede the ability to offer regular, structured training sessions. The lack of consistent professional development opportunities not only affects the staff’s preparedness but also compromises the quality of education and care provided to the children.

Overall, the inconsistent and sporadic nature of training sessions is a direct result of resource limitations and organizational shortcomings. The irregularity of these training opportunities leaves staff underprepared and negatively impacts the effectiveness of the ECD program. Addressing these constraints through more structured and frequent training programs, coupled with securing adequate funding, would be essential steps in enhancing the program’s capacity to deliver high-quality education and care.

Building upon this theme, the findings from field notes and observations further corroborate the gaps identified in the thematic and sentiment analysis. Teachers frequently mentioned the lack of structured training opportunities in interviews, a sentiment reflected in the observation data, where no evidence of formal training programs or CPD initiatives was observed during the study period. Teachers were often seen relying on outdated or improvised teaching methods, further demonstrating the absence of skill development opportunities. Additionally, field notes revealed an apparent reliance on peer support and informal knowledge sharing among teachers, which, while useful, highlights the lack of institutionalized training structures. These observations reinforce the theme of inconsistent training and professional development, emphasizing the pressing need for more structured and frequent CPD initiatives to enhance the quality of ECD services.

Theme 5: Support systems and professional development

The theme of Support Systems and Professional Development (CPD) further highlights the systemic challenges faced by ECD teachers, who are often left without adequate training or ongoing support once recruited. Both the interviews and observations underscore the absence of structured training programs and professional development opportunities, leaving teachers underprepared and unsupported in their roles. This issue is exacerbated by the fact that teachers often rely on outdated or informal methods of instruction with no consistent access to CPD.

We don’t get formal training. Once you’re in, you just learn as you go, mostly from other teachers or trial and error.–ECD Teacher 2

This quotation reflects the need for formal professional development pathways available to ECD teachers. With structured training, teachers are able to rely on peer support and self-teaching, which significantly hampers their ability to deliver high-quality education. The absence of CPD programs means that teachers are not exposed to modern teaching techniques or updates in ECD methodologies, further limiting their effectiveness in the classroom.

Field notes corroborated this issue, as teachers were observed relying on outdated or improvised materials and teaching methods. There needed to be evidence of regular training workshops or governmental initiatives to support the teachers in updating their skills. The observations revealed a reliance on traditional teaching techniques with slight variation or adaptation to newer pedagogical approaches. This lack of innovation in teaching methods was further attributed to the absence of CPD programs.

Welfare officers’ lack of engagement in professional development.

When asked whether welfare officers were involved in facilitating or overseeing professional development programs, both teachers and officials noted that there was minimal engagement from welfare officers in supporting teacher growth after recruitment. Teachers essentially felt abandoned once recruited, with no ongoing evaluation or support from officials.

The welfare officers rarely come back after we’ve started teaching. There needs to be a follow-up to see how we’re doing or to provide any training.–ECD Teacher 4

This statement reveals the lack of continuity in welfare officers’ engagement with teachers after the recruitment phase. There is no structured system in place for welfare officers to monitor the teachers’ progress or ensure they receive professional development opportunities. This issue was further observed in the field, where no welfare officers conducted training sessions during the study period. Teachers were left without access to formal development opportunities or ongoing support, severely limiting their ability to improve their teaching methods and adapt to evolving educational demands.

The lack of support systems and professional development for ECD teachers is a critical issue affecting their ability to perform effectively. The absence of structured CPD programs, coupled with minimal involvement from welfare officers’ post-recruitment, leaves teachers without the tools or knowledge to grow professionally. The reliance on informal peer support and outdated teaching methods further exacerbates the challenges faced by ECD teachers, as they struggle to provide quality education without the necessary resources or guidance. The field observations reinforce these findings, revealing a clear gap in training and professional support, which ultimately leads to teacher burnout and high turnover rates. Addressing these systemic gaps is essential to improving the quality and sustainability of ECD programs in the region.

This thematic analysis reveals consistent patterns across participant groups, highlighting the lack of formal structures and standardized processes in ECD teachers’ recruitment, roles, evaluation, training, and support mechanisms. The reliance on community-driven initiatives and volunteerism significantly influences the dynamics within the early childhood education sector, underscoring challenges in establishing robust frameworks for effective ECD programs.

The sentiment analysis within the study offers a nuanced dissection of the diverse sentiments expressed by varied participant cohorts. By examining the sentiments of community members, educators, social welfare representatives, and government officials overseeing ECD, this analysis captures a broad spectrum of perspectives, revealing the complex landscape of perceptions regarding the effectiveness and challenges of ECD initiatives. This comprehensive scrutiny of both positive and negative sentiments elucidates the multifaceted experiences, concerns, and factors shaping stakeholders’ perceptions of ECD efforts. Table 2 illustrates the heterogeneity of sentiments across the participant groups.

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Table 2. Descriptive statistics in sentiment mining.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314530.t002

Table 2 presents a comparative analysis of positive and negative sentiments across each participant group. Community members exhibited a predominantly positive outlook towards the programs and processes, with 20 positive sentiments, only 3 negative sentiments, and 8 neutral sentiments. Conversely, teachers expressed higher negative sentiments, with 14 negative compared to 10 positive and 6 neutral sentiments. Similarly, social welfare members demonstrated significant negative sentiments, with 10 negative sentiments against 2 positive and 6 neutral sentiments. Ministry officials also reflected a negative sentiment bias, with 5 negative sentiments compared to 3 positive and 4 neutral sentiments.

Implications for policy

The findings of this study have several important policy implications. First, there is an urgent need for policy reforms that formalize recruitment and training processes to professionalize ECD practice across Malawi. Establishing standardized recruitment procedures and providing clear role definitions for educators will foster a more structured environment, enabling educators to deliver more effective education. Additionally, ongoing professional development tailored to the specific needs of ECD educators is essential for improving the quality of education and care provided to young children.

Second, the study emphasizes the importance of equitable resource allocation, particularly for rural areas, where the shortage of qualified teachers and inadequate infrastructure are most acute. Policies should focus on improving funding for ECD centers to address these disparities and ensure that children in all regions have access to quality early childhood education.

Third, collaborative efforts between government officials, local communities, and international partners are necessary to tailor ECD interventions that meet local needs while aligning with global standards. These collaborative efforts should include the creation of robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to ensure consistent quality across ECD centers. By addressing these policy challenges, Malawi can create a more sustainable and effective ECD system that supports the development of its youngest learners, setting a foundation for future socio-economic growth.

Study limitations and contributions

One limitation of this study is the sample size, which may limit the generalizability of the findings beyond the specific region studied, T/A Zilakoma. While the insights gathered are valuable for understanding the local context, they may not fully capture the broader experiences of ECD practices across different regions. The reliance on a relatively small group of participants, including teachers and officials from one constituency, means that regional variations and other contextual factors could influence the applicability of the results to other areas. Additionally, the study’s dependence on self-reported data through interviews presents potential bias, as participants may unintentionally overstate or understate aspects of their experiences, influenced by memory, social desirability, or personal perception.

Contributions of this study

The multifaceted contributions of this study can be viewed through several dimensions:

Contextual Insight: The study provides a detailed examination of the ECD landscape within a rural Malawian context, specifically in T/A Zilakoma. This localized focus offers insight into the challenges of rural-based ECD centers, adding to the existing literature by offering region-specific data and analysis, often lacking in the broader ECD discourse.

Policy and Practice Recommendations: By identifying key challenges in recruitment practices, role clarity, training, and reliance on volunteerism, the study proposes actionable policy recommendations. These are particularly valuable for stakeholders seeking to professionalize the ECD sector, offering clear guidelines for improving recruitment, monitoring, and training systems within the sector.

Theoretical Application: The application of the EST provides a nuanced analysis of how various environmental systems (micro, meso, exo, macro, and chrono) interact to influence ECD outcomes. This adds a theoretical richness to the study, providing a structured lens through which to view the multifaceted challenges within the ECD framework.

Contribution to Global Discussions: Despite its focus on a rural Malawian setting, the study’s findings have broader implications for other developing countries facing similar ECD challenges. This comparative relevance contributes to the global discourse on achieving equitable and quality early childhood education in resource-constrained environments.

Sentiment Analysis as a Novel Approach: The inclusion of sentiment analysis adds an innovative layer to understanding stakeholders’ experiences and perceptions. This methodological approach provides a broader view of how different actors perceive the effectiveness of ECD programs, offering a more profound understanding of community, educator, and governmental responses to ECD initiatives.

Future study

To address these limitations, future research could expand the sample size to include a broader range of participants from various regions, enhancing the generalizability of the findings. Furthermore, complementing interviews with quantitative methods or observational data could provide a more robust and objective analysis of ECD practices, reducing the impact of self-report bias and offering a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics in early childhood education.

Declarations

Minimal data is submitted together with this manuscript.