Participant characteristics

In the interviewed sample, 40% were women. Almost all (90%) interviewees identified themselves as farmers, with agriculture as their primary source of income. Among the total participants, 97% were involved in rice cultivation, with this staple crop primarily designated for their own consumption, regardless of their primary occupation. Within the group of farmers, 75% were engaged in vanilla farming, and for 67% of these individuals, vanilla cultivation served as their primary source of income. Additionally, 53% of all participants reported having a secondary source of income, with the majority working as farm laborers (47%), followed by charcoal production (16%). On average, interviewees were 49 years old, had completed five years of education, and possessed one hectare of arable land on average (S1 Table).

COVID-19 disrupted travel and undermined local livelihoods

The restrictions imposed by the Malagasy government to contain the spread of COVID-19 had significant consequences on the livelihoods and food security of the farming community (S2 Table presents an overview of these social impacts and local strategies, the various themes reported, and frequency of these themes).

The measures implemented, such as quarantine and travel restrictions, prevented farmers from selling their products in other cities. As a result, the majority of households reported their income was impacted by the pandemic. Approximately 54.1% of households reported they experienced a decline in their earnings, while 17% suffered a total loss of income due to the imposed lockdown.

In addition to the financial challenges resulting from reduced income, farmers also faced difficulties caused by the pandemic itself. Four households reported that they contracted the virus, rendering them unable to work and provide for their families. Consequently, these households had to reduce both the quantity and quality of their food intake, leading to a deprivation of essential nutrients.

Furthermore, the burden of medical expenses related to COVID-19 added to the financial hardships of households. The four households who reported contracting the virus reported they had to allocate a significant portion of their income to cover healthcare costs, further exacerbating their already precarious situation. Moreover, farmers with the means to hire wage laborers reduced wages as a means of coping with the economic consequences of the pandemic.

In addition to the impacts of the disease and healthcare, the challenges faced by farmers during this time were particularly striking. The restrictions imposed to curb the spread of the virus resulted in a substantial decrease in the prices of agricultural goods. These restrictions prevented farmers from freely selling their produce, leading to limited market access and diminished income.

As one farmer explained,

"Overall, the restrictions resulting from the pandemic had a detrimental effect on the prices of goods, especially agricultural crops. Agricultural products were sold at prices far below their prices prior to the pandemic. For instance, let’s consider the case of pineapples, which used to be sold for 5000 Ariary, but were sold for only 1000 Ariary during the height of the crisis. This significant drop in agricultural product prices has had a profound impact on our ability to purchase essential goods." (Male, 59 years old, Andrapengy).

For vanilla farmers, the situation was exasperating due to the travel restrictions. Among the households that suffered income losses during the pandemic, those who rely on vanilla cultivation as their primary means of subsistence were particularly affected. The prohibition on travel and transportation between different regions, districts, and even cities disrupted market dynamics. Buyers were unable to travel to the villages where vanilla is typically sourced, while, concomitantly, sellers were unable to reach or connect with potential buyers. Approximately 70% of the households, predominantly farmers, found themselves in a dire situation. One vanilla farmer shared her experience, saying,

"The impact was substantial. During these periods of health emergency, no vanilla was sold because we had no buyers. We faced tremendous difficulties, and our means of subsistence were severely compromised." (Female, 48 years old, Mandena).

The repercussions of COVID-19 were not limited to the agricultural sector alone. The service sector also experienced a substantial negative impact, with around 7% of individuals (carpenters, grocers, small food vendors, laborers, etc.) witnessing a 50% decrease in their income. One resident, who runs a grocery shop, shared their personal experience, stating,

"We faced severe financial crises within our household due to the numerous constraints imposed by the pandemic. We were unable to work due to the restrictions, and alternative options were scarce. The decrease in demand for our services has greatly affected our livelihoods. Previously, we used to earn 10,000 Ar per day, but now we can only generate a turnover of 5,000 Ar per day." (Male, 52 years old, Andrapengy.)

Additionally, the food security of farmers was compromised. Approximately 46% of households reported significant changes in their dietary patterns. A marked reduction in the consumption of staple foods, particularly rice, was observed among the majority of households. Three households (5%) were compelled to entirely eliminate rice from their meals due to a decline in income, further aggravated by soaring food prices.

A compelling case illustrating this situation was reported in Andrapengy village, where a family recounted their experience:

"There has been a considerable decrease in the amount of rice consumed. Previously, we used to consume 4 cups of rice around the same time of the year, but we had to reduce it to 2.5 cups once the COVID-19 pandemic struck… At times, we even reduce the frequency of meals, resulting in only the children having a meal in the evening while the adults go to bed on an empty stomach." (Male, 41 years old, Andrapengy)

Colliding crises amplified vulnerabilities in the wake of COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic arrived at an unfortunate time, exacerbating the already precarious situation in the region. COVID-19 outbreak struck the region just as the residents were recovering from the effects of the cyclone Enawo. Cyclones, such as the significant Enawo in 2017, are a major threat to the region annually. The overall dependence of farmers in the region on vanilla also makes them vulnerable to challenges of extreme price volatility. These additional crises interact to exacerbate the vulnerability of these marginalized communities.

The 2017 Enawo cyclone’s impact caused significant devastation in the two villages, resulting in increased vulnerability due primarily to crop losses. Among the surveyed households, 68% reported crop losses, particularly essential crops like vanilla and cloves, due to strong winds and heavy rainfall. Furthermore, the destruction of homes left 21 out of 60 households homeless, leading to social instability as they sought new places to live or relied on the support of nearby families. One resident shared the psychological distress caused by the cyclone, stating:

"My house was ravaged, my vanilla crops were destroyed, and the bananas, which were also devastated, were not yet available or ripe. It almost drove me insane.” (Male, 53 years old, Mandena)

On the food front, the situation deteriorated with crop losses and decreased agricultural incomes, resulting in severe food security challenges. Among the interviewed households, 67% reported changes in their dietary habits, mainly experiencing a reduction in rice consumption, and it was found that approximately 3% of households shifted from eating three meals a day to two. The destruction of agricultural infrastructure further compromised food security, as it had a significant impact on rice production. Almost all (97%) of households cultivated rice, with approximately 77% being exclusively for subsistence. The cyclone’s impact led to the inundation of a significant portion of rice crops, resulting in reduced harvests and diminished availability for consumption.

The situation was particularly dire in the village of Andrapengy, which is located within kilometers of the Indian Ocean. The loss of homes and income due to the cyclone drove most villagers to urgently seek construction materials for rebuilding their destroyed houses, leading them to rely on forest resources. Both local residents and migrants turned to using wood from the nearby forests on the mountain known locally as Ambanitaza to produce charcoal and wooden planks. This increased dependence on forest resources resulted in overexploitation, depleting the available wood supply. The village chief explained:

"We had a large reserve [classified forest] in Ambanitaza before the cyclone, but it was ravaged. The inhabitants then exploited the parts of the reserve devastated by the cyclone to obtain wood, especially for making planks. However, they also used the reserve for cooking, inadvertently triggering a bushfire that destroyed the reserve. Subsequently, we faced significant difficulties in finding wood to rebuild and renovate our houses." (Male, 59 years old, Andrapengy)

Moreover, just when the residents thought they might find some respite after the successive shocks of the cyclone and COVID-19, the situation further deteriorated due to fluctuations in vanilla prices. During the pandemic, demand for vanilla decreased, partly due to the absence of buyers because of the travel restrictions. The lack of buyers amplified the negative effects of the decline in vanilla prices, further exacerbating the struggles of farmers. For instance, in 2018, vanilla prices ranged from $600 to $750 per kilogram, but by 2020, they plummeted to just $110 per kilogram, and this downward trend continues [21].

Interviews conducted among the local population further highlighted the magnitude of the impact of declining vanilla prices. Out of all respondents, 87% experienced a decrease in their incomes and 10% faced a total loss of cash income, exacerbating their already precarious economic conditions. Furthermore, due to financial constraints, 62% of the respondents were compelled to reduce their food consumption, with rice being the primary staple affected.

Those farmers who were not primarily reliant on vanilla as a source of income (25%) still faced challenges due to the vanilla price crash because it caused the price of other crops to drop as well. Notably, the respondents highlighted that the local economy relies on vanilla farmers, who act as potential buyers in the village. As a consequence, if vanilla prices decline, it significantly impairs the purchasing power of these farmers. Consequently, farmers selling other crops were compelled to decrease their prices in order to generate any revenue, as not doing so would lead to no income at all. One farmer expressed the situation:

"The decline in vanilla prices had a profound impact on me and my family. Indeed, when the price decreased, we faced considerable financial challenges, as it affected not only us but also other community members, particularly the vanilla farmers, who were also experiencing financial strain. As a result, all the crops we farm and sell fetched significantly lower prices." (Male, 25 years old Andrapengy)

In parallel, households dependent on income from daily wage labour faced income loss due to a decrease in job opportunities. Approximately 3% of respondents rely on daily wage labor as their main source of income and 18% report it as their secondary source. When vanilla prices were high, some vanilla farmers could hire other individuals for farming their land, tending to their rice fields, and assisting with various agricultural activities. However, with the income challenges brought on by the decline in vanilla prices, they had to reduce the number of farm laborers they employed or take on the tasks themselves. Two farmers shared their experiences, illustrating the difficulties they encountered. A vanilla farmer who used to employ people for farming activities, expressed,

"Since the vanilla price declined, we have faced problems with our livelihoods. Previously, we were accustomed to hiring people for various farming tasks, including our crops and rice fields. But now, our earnings no longer permit us to hire laborers, and we are left with the burden of carrying out all these tasks by ourselves, which is proving to be quite challenging." (Male, 57 years old, Mandena)

One farm worker added: “All of us were in a difficult situation; we struggled to find jobs since the main employers, the vanilla farmers themselves, were also facing difficult circumstances." (Female, 60 years old, Andrapengy)

Local strategies: Coping with income losses and increasing food insecurity

Diversification of crops, particularly fast-growing annual subsistence crops, has emerged as the primary strategy adopted by households to mitigate income losses during the various crises. Consequently, the produce from these crops can be sold in local markets or used for household consumption. Interview data revealed that during each past crisis, most households adopted this diversification strategy, with the percentage of adoption varying with the specific crisis. In the aftermath of COVID19 and the cyclones, it was adopted by at least 50% of households. During the prolonged declines in vanilla prices, up to 70% of residents opted to diversify their crops for selling purposes. Engaging in daily wage labor emerged as the second most used strategy. This was followed by making budget adjustments. Some households (11%) had to lower their standard of living or reduce expenses related to children’s education. Additionally, they curtailed their food expenditures to essentials. Furthermore, in certain cases, households resorted to peer-to-peer lending, while others sought loans from associations such as the local Village Savings and Loan Associations.

The interviews suggested that when facing prolonged decline in vanilla prices, cultivating perennial crops such as coffee and cloves emerges as the third most used strategy (13% of the respondents). These crops are cultivated to serve as additional sources of income alongside vanilla, given their favorable market prices and benefits as perceived by farmers. This diversification strategy not only provides a buffer against market volatility but also contributes to the overall resilience of households in managing economic uncertainties.

Given the constant challenges posed by climate change, adopting agricultural practices that are responsive to the local climate conditions was seen by 27 households as a means to enhance resilience. Farmers strategically cultivated crops suitable for dry periods, such as bananas, and adjusted their farming activities to align with rainy and dry periods, including planting leguminous plants (beans) or potatoes. This approach allowed them to optimize yields and ensure food security during varying weather patterns. Additionally, farmers started planting more cassava and yams for consumption, as these crops are suitable for different weather conditions, increasing their resilience. However, amidst the array of modern techniques available, that farmers still exhibit a propensity for traditional methodologies passed down through generations.

Understanding village dynamics: Mandena and Andrapengy villagers’ responses to the crises

The two study communities differed in terms of geographic location and accessibility, impact of the crises, and coping strategies. Mandena is situated near a protected area with relatively more stringent regulations on forest access and use, while Andrapeny, located along a national road, has no such protected area.

At Mandena, located near protected area Marojejy National Park, no anthropogenic activities were reported in the interviews, such as making charcoal or cutting trees for wood planks Approximately 75% of the people interviewed believed that regulations were stringent, with exploiting forest resources strongly prohibited. During the pandemic, despite households (54%) facing financial issues and challenges in dietary habits (15%), their reported strategies focused mainly on crop diversification (both crop sales and subsistence crops). This approach was the most reported by households to cope with income losses (19%). Additionally, some households (4%) resorted to peer-to-peer loans, while others adjusted their budgets to navigate the economic challenges brought on by the pandemic.

Moreover, around 10% of households interviewed in Mandena found resilience through their involvement with the Marojejy National Park. Despite travel restrictions hindering tourism revenue, these households were tasked with patrolling the park and making reports for foreign organizations during the pandemic. This enabled them to maintain a stable income even when visitors were absent. One respondent shared their experience:

"During the COVID-19 pandemic, our financial situation was somewhat moderate, not too critical. We heavily relied on my husband’s second source of income as a local guide in the National Park. Even though no visitors came, foreign organizations assigned him other tasks that allowed us to earn an income." (Female, 42 years old, Mandena)

In contrast, the patterns observed in the village of Andrapengy were different. Andrapengy is located near fragmented and transformed forests known as Ambanitaza, which is not a protected area. Unlike Mandena, the regulations on entry and usage of natural resources in Andrapengy were more lenient. As a result, one common strategy was the use of natural resources, out of 30 respondents, 22 reported exploitation of forest resources during crises. During cyclone periods, the government gave residents permission to access the Ambanitaza forests to collect wood and trees damaged by the cyclone. Consequently, some households (three admitted to doing so, while 22 households reported that exploiting forest resources was common) entered the forests to make charcoal and boards from the trees. This practice became widespread in the village, and charcoal became a prominent strategy for combating crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic, vanilla price decreases, etc. A villager shares their perspective on accessing natural resources:

"Charcoal has become a second income-generating activity besides vanilla, and the situation has not improved, given the decline in vanilla prices… To this day, charcoal has become a first resort, and most people are doing it; some even rent cars to transport their charcoal from here to Antalaha… ." (Female, 73 years old, Andrapengy).