Classification and characterisation of livestock production systems in northern Tanzania

Livestock keepers in sub-Saharan Africa face a range of pressures, including climate change, land loss, restrictive policies, and population increase. Widespread adaptation in response can lead to the emergence of new, non-traditional typologies of livestock production. We sought to characterise livestock production systems in two administrative regions in northern Tanzania, an area undergoing rapid social, economic, and environmental change. Questionnaire and spatial data were collected from 404 livestock-keeping households in 21 villages in Arusha and Manyara Regions in 2016. Multiple factor analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis were used to classify households into livestock production systems based on household-level characteristics. Adversity-based indicators of vulnerability, including reports of hunger, illness, and livestock, land and crop losses were compared between production systems. Three distinct clusters emerged through this process. The ethnic, environmental and livestock management characteristics of households in each cluster broadly mapped onto traditional definitions of ‘pastoral’, ‘agro-pastoral’ and ‘smallholder’ livestock production in the study area, suggesting that this quantitative classification system is complementary to more qualitative classification methods. Our approach allowed us to demonstrate a diversity in typologies of livestock production at small spatial scales, with almost half of study villages comprising more than one production system. We also found indicators of change within livestock production systems, most notably the adoption of crop agriculture in the majority of pastoral households. System-level heterogeneities in vulnerability were evident, with agro-pastoral households most likely to report hunger and pastoral households most likely to report illness in people and livestock, and livestock losses. We demonstrate that livestock production systems can provide context for assessing household vulnerability in northern Tanzania. Policy initiatives to improve household and community well-being should recognise the continuing diversity of traditional livestock production systems in northern Tanzania, including the diversity that can exist at small spatial scales.

1. What is your [head of household] tribe [Kabila lako ni lipi]?(Options: Arusha; Maasai; Barabaig; Chagga; Iraqw; Pare; Sambaa; Other (specify)) (Maasai, Arusha, Meru, Iraqw, Barabaig, Nyaturu ethnicity) 2. What is the highest level of education of the head of the household [Kiwango cha juu cha elimu cha mkuu wa kaya]?(No formal education; Some primary school; Completed primary school; Some secondary school; Completed secondary school; Post-secondary qualifications; Some university; University completed; Post graduate) (Household head completed primary school) 3. How frequently do you treat water before drinking it [Huwa unatibu maji ya kunywa mara nyingi kabla ya kunywa]?(Always (daily); Sometimes (a few times a week); Rarely (a few times a month); Never) (Treat drinking water) 4. What type of toilet system do members of this household use [Ni aina gani ya mfumo wa choo ambao unatumika kawaida na kaya yako]?(Flush or pour toilet with septic tank, including squat toilet; Flush or pour toilet connected to sewer pipe; Pit latrine with covering slab; Pit latrine without covering slab; Ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP)    Table S2 provides the scores and relative contributions to the first and second factor for each categorical variable used in the MFA procedure.Table S3 provides the scores and relative contributions to the first and second factor for each continuous variable used in the MFA procedure.

Figure
FigureS1shows the scree plot of eigenvalues associated with each factor.A natural break is observed between Factor number 5 and 6.

sheep, tether small stock) 34
. Which of the following best describes the way you manage the herding of animals in this compound [Ipi kati yafuatayo inaeleza vizuri jinsi unavyotunza kundi la wanyama katika boma hili]?(Cattle, sheep and goats together; Cattle separately, sheep and goats together; Cattle with goats, sheep separately; Cattle with sheep, goats separately; All species separately; Other) (Graze cattle with small stock) 35.Are cattle from this compound regularly taken to seasonal camps for grazing [Je, ng'ombe wa boma hili wanapelekwa kwenye maboma ya muda kwa ajili ya malisho (ronjo)]?(Yes; No) (Cattle transhumance) 36.Are goats from this compound regularly taken to seasonal camps for grazing [Je, mbuzi wa boma hili wanapelekwa kwenye maboma ya muda kwa ajili ya malisho (ronjo)]?(Yes; No) (Small stock transhumance) 37. Are sheep from this compound regularly taken to seasonal camps for grazing [Je, kondoo wa boma hili wanapelekwa kwenye maboma ya muda kwa ajili ya malisho (ronjo)]?(Yes; No) (Small stock transhumance) 38.In the past 4 days have you or anyone else in the household eaten the following foods [Katika siku 4 zilizopita wewe au mtu yeyote katika kaya yako alikula vyakula vifuatavyo]?(Maize, ugali, chapati, rice, bread, plantains, noodles, millet, or any other food made from rice, wheat, millet or sorghum; Potatoes, yams, cassava, or any other foods made from roots or tubers; Vegetables or fruits; Chicken, duck or other birds (including liver, kidney, heart, or other organ meats from such animals); Beef, pork, lamb, goat, rabbit, wild game or liver, kidney, heart or other organ meats from these animals; Eggs; Fresh or dried fish or shellfish; Foods made from beans, peas, lentils, nuts; Cheese, yogurt, milk or other milk products; Foods made with oil, fat, or butter; Blood from livestock, either fresh or processed; None of the above) (All consumption variables) 39.Did your household experience any of the following situations during the past year [Je, kaya yako ilipata yeyote kati ya hali zifuatazo katika mwaka uliopita]?(Hunger; Table S1 gives the source of the data used for variables in Domain 1 shown in Table 1 (in the main text).

Table S2 .
Scores and relative contribution assigned to each categorical variable for the first and second dimensions in the MFA applied to livestock keeping households in northern Tanzania.

Table S3 .
Scores and relative contribution assigned to each continuous variable for the first and second dimensions in the MFA applied to livestock keeping households in northern Tanzania.