The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Conceived and designed the experiments: LNG KXZ WJZ. Performed the experiments: WJZ. Analyzed the data: LJY JKX. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: WJZ LJY. Wrote the paper: LNG JKX LJY.
The influence of environmental attitudes on environmental behaviors has long been discussed. However, few studies have addressed the foundation of such attitudes. In the present study, we explored primitive belief underlying environmental attitudes, i.e., connections with nature, and its relationship with pro-environmental behaviors. Specifically, we used scales, a computerized Implicit Association Test, and a situational simulation experiment to examine both explicit and implicit connections with nature, both deliberate and spontaneous environmental behaviors, and to find correlations between environmental connectedness and environmental behaviors. Results showed that explicit connectedness was positively correlated with deliberate environmental behaviors, while implicit connectedness was positively correlated with spontaneous environmental behaviors. Additionally, explicit and implicit connectedness was independent of each other. In conclusion, the current study confirms the positive role played by connections with nature in promoting environmental behavior, and accordingly suggests means to encourage pro-environmental behavior by enhancing people’s connectedness to nature.
Over the last century, along with rapid growth in technology, we have witnessed increasing environmental problems such as air pollution, water pollution, and global warming. People have gradually acknowledged the substantial influence of human behaviors on the natural world. In environmental psychology, the function of psychosocial variables of pro-environmental behavior, including attitudes, behavioral control, moral norms, intentions, and so forth, has received considerable attention [
Research on environmental attitudes, which measures the specific cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects of attitudes and concerns towards environmental problems, has been fruitful (e.g. [
The concept of
As an underlying factor for environmental attitudes,
Explicit and implicit measures involve different psychological processes in behavior determination. Generally, implicit measures, to a greater degree, examine automatic processes [
Both methods of evaluation have predictive potency for certain contents [
Behaviors vary on a continuum based on the amount of control one exercises [
In the present study, we measured connection with nature and pro-environmental behavior. Psychologists have developed several explicit measures of connection with nature, such as the Inclusion of Nature in Self (INS) [
Measurement of environmental behaviors has been challenging for scientists. Current measurement techniques are still mostly based on questionnaire scales. Examples include measuring the environmental behaviors about purchasing, recycling, energy, and transportation [
Evidence has accumulated showing a link between connection with nature and pro-environmental behavior. Individuals with higher connectedness are more likely to act in an environmentally friendly manner than are those who feel less connected to nature [
Following the logic in the relationship between explicit and implicit measures and deliberate and spontaneous behaviors, we hypothesized that implicitly measured connections with nature would predict spontaneous pro-environmental behaviors, while explicitly measured connections with nature would predict deliberate pro-environmental behaviors. To our knowledge, few studies have addressed this. In turn, this might be useful for promoting pro-environmental behaviors in real life. In the present study, we incorporated direct scales and the experimental IAT tests to measure connections with nature both explicitly and implicitly, and combine a self-report and a situation simulation experiment to examine pro-environmental behavior.
One-hundred twenty Chinese students were recruited from Nanjing University. Four participants did not meet the criteria for data analysis used in IAT test. For this reason, they were dropped from the experiment. Moreover, three participants’ statistical data for questionnaires were incomplete. Thus, the final sample included 113 participants (63 male, 50 female; age range: 23–30 years, mean age = 26.54 years,
Participants completed a questionnaire package with two blocks of items: (1) explicit connectedness to nature, and (2) deliberate environmental behaviors. A computerized test was designed to measure implicit connectedness to nature and a situational simulation test examined spontaneous environmental behaviors.
The CNS was designed to explicitly measure the degree to which a person feels emotionally connected to nature [
In our study, we used a Chinese version of the CNS [
A modified Chinese version of the computerized IAT based on that of Schultz and colleagues [
In the IAT, participants were timed as they sorted words into four categories using two responses. Two categories were related to the self-concept: Me (
The words were presented in random order within each of the blocks. In order to counter-balance for potential order effects, two versions of the IAT procedure were developed. For participants with an odd identification number, blocks 1, 2, and 5 were considered practice blocks, blocks 3 and 4 were considered “compatible” pairings (e.g., “For a
We screened outliers for error rate. The average error rate across the 70 trials was 4.2, or 6.0%. Two subjects with a high error rate (error rate > 30%) were dropped. Scores for the IAT were produced using the improved scoring algorithm provided by Greenwald, Nosek and Banaji (2003) [
The College Students’ Environmental Behaviors Questionnaire was modified by Shen [
Nestlé wafers of four different flavors (mocha, milk, sesame, and peanut) were given to participants as gifts after they finished the questionnaire and IAT task. Participants were instructed to choose four packets of the same or different flavors, and were then asked whether they needed a plastic bag to pack them up. In the study, the plastic bags were free, but the gifts could easily be held in one hand, which means that the plastic bag was not necessary. When the participant chose to use a plastic bag, this was interpreted as not environmentally friendly behavior. In the present study, using the plastic bag was used as a proxy measure for fewer spontaneous environmental behaviors. The plastic bag used in our study was of an ordinary type, similar to those commonly used in daily shopping. It was transparent and had no picture on it. The bag’s average appearance allowed is to rule out other possible factors possibly influencing one’s decision. Furthermore, by asking participants to choose wafer flavors, we prevented them from focusing on the plastic bag itself, thus raising the likelihood of spontaneous behavior.
Using a plastic bag was marked as a score of “0,” while not using one was marked as “1.” Higher scores indicated a higher degree of spontaneous environmental behavior.
All participants were tested individually in a private room. First, participants provided written consent to participate in the study. Each participant completed the questionnaire, the IAT, and the situational simulation test. Half of the participants finished the questionnaire first and then performed the IAT, while the other half completed the IAT first and then the questionnaire. After participants completed the questionnaire and the IAT, the situational simulation experiment was conducted. Finally, participants were thanked and debriefed. This study was approved by Institutional Review Board of Nanjing University.
Data were obtained from 113 participants. Statistical analyses were conducted with SPSS 19.0. The data were screened according to the principle of 3 standard deviations above or below the mean scores, and we found no outliers in the questionnaires. The internal consistencies of the scales used were within an acceptable range. Cronbach’s alpha for the CNS was 0.71, and the mean score was 78.98 (
Correlation coefficients were computed to evaluate bivariate relationships among the four variables of interest: CNS, D-scores, Bag usage, and CSEBQ. The results are shown in
CNS | D-score | CSEBQ | Bag usage | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1.00 | ||||
0.04 | 1.00 | |||
0.39 |
-0.14 | 1.00 | ||
-0.12 | 0.56 |
-0.23 |
1.00 |
CNS: Connectedness to Nature Scale; IAT: Implicit Association Test; CSEBQ: College Students’ Environmental Behaviors Questionnaire.
*
**
Linear regression using the enter method was employed to test if CNS and D-scores could be used to predict CSEBQ, i.e., deliberate environmental behaviors. Results revealed that the CNS and D-score combined were significant predictors of deliberate environmental behaviors measured by the CSEBQ (
Based on the findings above, we employed a binary logistic regression analysis to explore the factors that predict spontaneous behaviors. Bag usage was defined as the criterion variable, and D-score and CNS were set as predictor variables. D-scores and CNS were significant combined predictors of spontaneous environmental behaviors as measured by bag usage (χ2 = 9.35,
The results demonstrate that connections with nature are an effective predictor of pro-environmental behavior, which corresponds with previous research [
The results showed a very weak correlation (
The finding that IAT-nature predicts spontaneous behaviors whereas CNS predicts deliberate behaviors provides empirical support for the different types of psychological processing involved in explicit and implicit measures. Moreover, our findings correspond with the double dissociation pattern. This pattern has already received empirical support from a number of studies, and provides a useful theoretical view for examining the mental processes in behavior determination (e.g. [
Interestingly, the result revealed that D-score made a marginally significant contribution to CSEBQ scores (
There was a strong correlation between implicit measures of environmental connectedness and spontaneous pro-environmental behavior (
The study inspired us to ponder on how to ignite people’s passion to protect nature. In the long term, it would be wise to cultivate people’s connection with nature, promote the emotional and cognitive tie between humans and the natural world, and increase people’s feeling of being one with nature. Previous research has also demonstrated that connectedness promotes pro-environmental behaviors [
Although this study reveals innovative and interesting findings regarding the relation between connection with nature and pro-environmental behavior, we would be remiss if we did not note some limitations of the study. First, the relationship between connection with nature and environmental concerns or attitudes has not been fully investigated. Despite our claim that connection with nature is an important foundational factor of environmental attitudes that can predict individuals’ pro-environmental behavior, future studies must yet develop a theoretical model for the relationship between connection with nature and environmental concerns or attitudes. Second, the structure of the plastic bag test to measure spontaneous environmental behavior is binary, not continuous. The measurement might thus be oversimplified, necessitating the development of a more elaborate tool in future studies.
We conclude that our study provides evidence for the correlation between connection with nature and environmental behaviors, and further suggests that explicit connection with nature can predict deliberate pro-environmental behavior, whereas implicit connections with nature can predict spontaneous pro-environmental behavior. Thus, it is implicit connection with nature that can genuinely predict pro-environmental behaviors in real-life situations.
We would like to thank Qiaoxin Xu, Qi Wang, Zhuxuan Tang and Jiaoyao Xu for their invaluable assistance with programming the experiments.