Fig 1.
Sleep deprivation altered the microbiota in the ileum.
(A) comparison of α diversity between groups. * P < 0.05 for the comparisons. (B) comparison of β diversity between groups. (C) relative abundance of various bacteria at genus level. Only bacteria that were different in relative abundance between control and SD groups are shown here. The sample size was 6 mice per group. SD: sleep deprivation.
Table 1.
Key parameters (mesor, amplitude, acrophase, and p value) of consinor analysis at order level of bacteria.
Fig 2.
Sleep deprivation disrupted the diurnal rhythmicity of gut microbiota at order level.
(A) graphical presentation of cosinor analysis. Light and dark phases of a day are shaded in white and gray, respectively. (B) results of cosinor analysis. (C) relative abundance of two types of bacteria. Light and dark phases of a day are shaded in white and gray, respectively. (D) results of two-way ANOVA. Data are presented in mean ± S.E.M. (n = 6). * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.001 compared with the corresponding control. SD: sleep deprivation.
Fig 3.
Sleep deprivation increased inflammatory cytokines and decreased corticosterone in the blood.
(A) results of cytokines and corticosterone. Light and dark phases of a day are shaded in white and gray, respectively. (B) results of two-way ANOVA. Data are presented in mean ± S.E.M. (n = 6). * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.001 compared with the corresponding control (IL-6, IL-1β and IL-17 results) or sleep deprivation (corticosterone results) groups. SD: sleep deprivation.
Fig 4.
Sleep deprivation disrupted the diurnal rhythmicity of inflammatory cytokines in the blood.
(A) graphical presentation of cosinor analysis. Light and dark phases of a day are shaded in white and gray, respectively. (B) results of cosinor analysis. Data are presented in mean ± S.E.M. (n = 6). SD: sleep deprivation.
Fig 5.
Analysis of correlation between gut bacteria and blood cytokine concentrations or gut bacteria and short chain fatty acid concentrations.
(A) correlation between gut bacteria and blood cytokine concentrations. (B) correlation between gut bacteria and blood short chain fatty acid concentrations. PA: propionic acid, BA: butyric acid. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01 for the correlation.
Fig 6.
Sleep deprivation did not affect the concentrations of short chain fatty acids in the blood.
(A) results of short chain fatty acids. Light and dark phases of a day are shaded in white and gray, respectively. (B) results of two-way ANOVA. AA: acetic acid, PA: propionic acid, BA: butyric acid, VA: valeric acid. Data are presented in mean ± S.E.M. (n = 6). SD: sleep deprivation.
Fig 7.
No significant diurnal rhythmicity of short chain fatty acids in the blood was observed.
(A) graphical presentation of cosinor analysis. Light and dark phases of a day are shaded in white and gray, respectively. (B) results of cosinor analysis. AA: acetic acid, PA: propionic acid, BA: butyric acid, VA: valeric acid. Data are presented in mean ± S.E.M. (n = 6). SD: sleep deprivation.
Fig 8.
Sleep deprivation increased the time staying in the corner area during open field test.
(A) time in the corner area. (B) time in the border area. (C) time in the center area. (D) total travel distance in the test. Data are presented in mean ± S.E.M. (n = 11 - 12) with the presence of individual animal result. * P < 0.05 for the comparisons. SD: sleep deprivation.