Fig 1.
Map of Ebola outbreaks in Africa.
The outbreak in West Africa is unprecedented in its scope and duration, occurring for the first time in urban centers. Historically, Ebola viral outbreaks (stars, timeline right) occurred sporadically, limited largely to Central African rural areas where the human population (grey to red gradient stippling [5,6]) has been low or more remote from areas of high population density. It is uncertain how frequent Ebola outbreaks will be in the future, given the identification of wildlife spillover potential in West Africa and the increasingly concentrated human populations in this region.
Table 1.
Ebola Outbreaks in Africa.
Fig 2.
Schematic of virus spillover from wildlife and human-to-human transmission.
Pathogen spillover to humans is typically associated with the use of bushmeat and direct contact with tissues and/or bodily fluids through handling and eating of infected animals (A), e.g., duiker, primates, or fruit bats [13]. Predation and consumption of a red colobus monkey by chimpanzees has also been linked to an outbreak of Ebola among chimpanzees and one researcher in Côte d'Ivoire [14]. Ingestion of fruit contaminated with Ebola-infected bat saliva or feces may be another mechanism by which bats might infect other involved wildlife species (e.g., duiker, nonhuman primates) or even humans. Human-to-human transmission has been associated with traditional burial practices, caregiving, or some other form of direct physical contact with infected individuals or bodily fluids [15]. Transmission dynamics in high-density urban centers (C) will differ importantly from rural villages (B), influencing outbreak progression and control efforts. Transmission in the hospital setting is largely associated with failures in infection control procedures and standard barrier precautions (D), many of which are related to inadequate staffing, infrastructure, and financing of health care systems [16,17].
Fig 3.
Case counts of historical Ebola outbreaks and the current outbreak in West Africa [24].
A) The 2014 West Africa outbreak eclipses all previous known outbreaks, with more cases and deaths than the other events combined. B) Cumulative case counts in Liberia, Guinea, and Sierra Leone demonstrate widespread transmission. Presently, Liberia is experiencing intense growth of the disease outbreak, with dozens of new cases each day.
Table 2.
Epidemiological characteristics of the 2014 West African Ebola outbreak.
Fig 4.
West Africa Ebola case counts at biweekly intervals.
An assessment of EBOV outbreaks in which circles identify two-week intervals in outbreak progression, and distance between the circle lines is equivalent to the number of cases affected during that respective time period. The graphic highlights the important differences in outbreak duration and case counts not only between West Africa and Central Africa EBOV epidemics but also by country within the outbreak region in West Africa itself. Liberia clearly has had the largest number of cases over the shortest duration. This reflects, in part, the movement of the outbreak into the high-density urban center—the capital city Monrovia—and the intense growth of the outbreak from that point.
Fig 5.
Range of bat species suspected of being reservoirs of Ebola, human population density, and Ebola case counts by location in West Africa.
The range of putative EBOV reservoir species the little collared fruit bat (yellow), the hammer-headed fruit bat (blue), and the straw-coloured fruit bat (green) are thought to be associated with previous Central African EBOV outbreaks [40–42]. Guéckédou, Guinea, was the first affected area in December of 2013 (star) [12] with spread to other regions (blue—location of confirmed, red—recent confirmed cases as of October 20, 2014 [43]. The outbreak now involves Sierra Leone and Liberia. Limited spread, in Nigeria and Senegal (only one case), related to travel of infected persons has been identified. A separate Ebola outbreak in the DRC was reported on August 25, 2014 (map inset) [44]. Human-mediated loss of forest resources (2000–2012, red stippling) has been dramatic in the region [45]. In addition to bushmeat-associated exposure, human-mediated environmental change in the region could increase human contact with potentially infected bat species in both the urban and rural environment.
Fig 6.
Seasonal factors may influences forage and wildlife distributions, potentially increasing their contact with Ebola reservoirs.
Ebola outbreaks appear to coincide with seasonal factors, which can influence forage availability and spatial distribution across the landscape, potentially increasing contact between wildlife species and EBOV transmission potential. Fighting and breeding among bat species during these periods is thought to potentially influence viral load and EBOV transmission within and between bat species.
Table 3.
Socioeconomic and environmental factors may have influenced Ebola emergence in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone [64].
Fig 7.
Increases in population density and the proportion living in urban environments in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone since the 1960s.
A) Population density in the outbreak region has increased dramatically over the last 40 years [64]. Increases in human density can have a critical influence on contact networks and human-to-human transmission potential and environmental degradation. Increasing need for natural resources can potentially increase contact rates with wildlife (e.g., timber). B) Urbanization is an important factor influencing infrastructural needs, resources, and population density, factors that can influence contact networks, outbreak dynamics, and intervention success. This is particularly true in poorer countries, where rapidly progressing disease outbreaks in urban environments outstrip weak public health resources. Liberia has experienced the greatest increase in urban population, with an estimated 253% increase since 1961.
Fig 8.
Schematic Ebola early-warning system.
Development of any early-warning system for the prevention of future Ebola outbreaks will require a multiscaled effort that spans the international level down to the community, engaging partnerships between and within levels. The most important element of surveillance will be the effective engagement of local communities in regions of concern. A community-driven wildlife surveillance strategy should be designed through participatory approaches, driven by traditional leaders in partnership with country governments. Developed communication networks would need to engage forest users regarding observations of deceased or sick wildlife, in particular those species associated with Ebola outbreaks previously. Sociological assessments and community consultation would be needed to identify barriers to reporting dead or sick wildlife and development of appropriate educational approaches and other social interventions. While international assistance will be important, government and community ownership of the process at the national and local level will be important for sustainability. Research into Ebola reservoir and transmission dynamics will be essential to refining surveillance approaches.