Figure 1.
Note the anterior thickening on the tibia depicted on the left side. These bones were excavated at the Brazilian shell mound Jabuticabeira II, which dates to approximately 3,000 yBP.
Figure 2.
The calibration points (obtained from the palaeopathological record) were used as node constrains for phylogenetic analyses to test the following hypotheses on the origin of treponematoses: A) T. pallidum emerged before modern humans evolved, using treponemal evidences in Homo erectus 1.6 million yBP. B) T. pallidum subsp. pallidum emerged from less virulent strains in Europe after Columbus' conquest 500 yBP. C) T. pallidum subsp. pallidum emerged in the time range between 16,500 yBP and 5,000 yBP.
Figure 3.
Pre-Columbian Treponematoses map.
Temporal and geographic distribution of osseous evidences of different types of treponematoses. For the underlying bibliography, refer to Table S1.
Figure 4.
Geographical and temporal distribution of treponematoses.
A) Percentage of Old World (N = 33) and New World (N = 56) cases of treponematoses, excluding those with uncertain diagnosis or date. B) Percentage of the same cases taken together and distributed according to the corresponding time intervals: 6,000–1,000 BC (N = 15), 1,000 BC–AD 1,000 (N = 29) and AD 1,000-Contact (N = 45). These distributions are based on Table 1.
Table 1.
New and Old World distribution of pre-Columbian treponematoses cases, as evidenced by paleopathological research.
Table 2.
Test of hypothesis A.
Table 3.
Test of hypothesis B.
Table 4.
Test of hypothesis C.