http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6609-0609
Figures
Abstract
Species of Gasterophilus Leach are obligate parasites in domestic and wild equids and responsible for cosmopolitan gasterophilosis. Although with only eight species known so far, they have received considerable attention because of their significant veterinary and economic importance. Surprisingly, we found that G. flavipes (Olivier) is a valid species based on morphological characters from male, female and the egg, after spending half a century as a synonym of G. haemorrhoidalis (Linnaeus). In the present study, G. flavipes, G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis (Brauer), which are the three closely related species possessing a remarkable mixture of shared morphological characters, are diagnosed and comparatively redescribed; the key to separate adults and eggs are provided, together with a series of high-resolution photographs from all the body parts. COI barcodes do not allow for a separation of G. flavipes, G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis, but showed a closer relationship between G. flavipes and G. haemorrhoidalis than the other two combinations, which is consistent with the morphological evidence. Geographically, G. flavipes seems to be common and widespread in the warmer parts of the Palaearctic region. Thus, the epidemiology of gasterophilosis where G. flavipes is known or supposed to occur calls for a more careful veterinarian re-assessment. A decline in the populations of Gasterophilus spp. has been noticed in Europe, but all seven Palaearctic species of Gasterophilus appear to maintain stable populations in Xinjiang (China), which may be explained by a higher biodiversity of equids and less use of anti-parasitic treatments in Xinjiang than in Europe. Our study shows that morphological characters still provide the solid backbone in classification of Gasterophilus at species-level, and updated diagnoses and a key is provided to distinguish G. flavipes, G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis, and to facilitate studies of epidemiology, phylogeny and host-parasite co-evolution.
Citation: Li X-y, Pape T, Zhang D (2019) Gasterophilus flavipes (Oestridae: Gasterophilinae): A horse stomach bot fly brought back from oblivion with morphological and molecular evidence. PLoS ONE 14(8): e0220820. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220820
Editor: Simon Russell Clegg, University of Lincoln, UNITED KINGDOM
Received: April 22, 2019; Accepted: July 23, 2019; Published: August 12, 2019
Copyright: © 2019 Li et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Data Availability: All the DNA sequences generated by this study are assembled, aligned and available in GenBank under the accession numbers: MK412087–MK412089.
Funding: This study is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 31872964 and 31572305), Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (No. JC2015-04), Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University (No. NCET-12-0783), Beijing Higher Education Young Elite Teacher Project (No. YETP0771), the State Scholarship Fund of China Scholarship Council (No. 201306515009) awarded to DZ, and also the State Scholarship Fund of China Scholarship Council awarded to XYL (No. 201806510006) to pursue her study in University of Copenhagen. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have no conflict of interest to declare and note that the funders of this research had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Introduction
Species of Gasterophilus Leach (Oestridae: Gasterphilinae) are obligate parasites adapted to a larval life in the intestinal tract of equids (including horses, donkeys, asses and zebras) [1–6]. Although only nine species are known (present study), the genus has become near cosmopolitan by the association with domestic hosts [3,4,6–9]. Gasterophilus species are responsible for gasterophilosis in domestic and wild equids, which can lead to serious injuries (e.g. destruction of the gums, ulcerations, peritonitis, anemia, heavy debilitation and blockage of the gastrointestinal tract), or even death to the hosts [10–14].
Due to the significant veterinary and economic importance of Gasterophilus species, they have received considerable attention regarding identification, distribution, infectious intensity and incidence [15–18]. It has been suggested that species of Gasterophilus may be threatened with extinction because of increased and widespread use of broad spectrum antiparasitics (e.g. macrocyclic lactones, which provides exquisite sensitivity to Gasterophilus) [15,19] and a decreased number of other equids (e.g. donkeys). Regional decline of biodiversity and risks of extinction of Gasterophilus species have already been noticed in Italy [15].
Interestingly, all the Palaearctic Gasterophilus species have been recently reported in Xinjiang Autonomous Region, China, where they appear to maintain large and stable populations [17,20,21]. Surprisingly, numerous males and females of Gasterophilus were collected during recent epidemiological investigations in Kalamaili, Xinjiang, which could not be identified using the keys from Grunin [3] and Zumpt [4]. These specimens possess a remarkable mixture of features shared with G. haemorrhoidalis (Linnaeus) and G. inermis (Brauer), but distinct differences in setal colouration and shape of male terminalia strongly suggest that these specimens represent a valid species. After a thorough examination of morphological characters and available literature, we found that habitus, colour pattern and male terminalia of this species match those of G. flavipes [22], whose male terminalia were thoroughly documented by Patton [23]. The name G. flavipes was subsequently synonymised by Grunin [3] and Zumpt and Paterson [24] under G. haemorrhoidalis.
Thus, the aim of this study is to resurrect G. flavipes as a valid species utilizing both morphological and molecular data, including the first description of the female and the egg, present a reliable key to separate adult flies of the three morphologically similar species, G. flavipes, G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis, and provide morphological, molecular and distribution data to facilitate epidemiological and host-parasite investigations of Gasterophilus.
Material and methods
Ethics statement
This study was carried out under a bio-specimen collecting permit issued by the current authority (Hong-jun Chu) of Forestry Bureau, Xinjiang. There is no number for the issued permit.
Sample collection
Gasterophius flavipes adults (11 males, 15 females) were sorted out from a single sample of a Malaise trap deployed for 10 days at the Qiaomuxibai water reservoir (45°13’48”N; 89°03’00”E), Kalamaili, Xinjiang, China, in 2017. The specimens are deposited at Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China, and Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
Morphological and distribution data
Series of photographs were taken using a Visionary Digital Imaging System, with a Canon EOS 7D (Canon, Inc., Tokyo, Japan) and stacked using Zerene Stacker software, or using an Olympus SZX16 stereoscopic microscope (Olympus Corp., Tokyo, Japan) equipped with a Canon 600D digital camera (Canon, Inc., Tokyo, Japan) and stacked using Combine ZP (by Alan Hadley). Superimposed photographs were composed using Adobe Photoshop CS6 (Adobe Systems, Inc., San Jose, CA, U.S.A.) on a Windows 10 platform. Male terminalia were treated in 10% KOH solution before being dissected and the eggs of G. flavipes were obtained by dissecting a female specimen. Terminology of adult morphology follows Pape [25] and Cumming and Wood [26].
Redescriptions are provided for adults and eggs only. Thorough and comprehensive morphological characters and identification keys to third instar Gasterophilus larvae have been updated by Li et al [21], and the third instar of G. flavipes is still unknown.
Distribution and hosts are given based on information obtained from specimens examined for the present study together with data from Brauer [2], Zumpt [4], Guimarães [27], Guimarães and Papavero [28], Grunin [3], Grunin [29], Pont [7], James [30], Pont [31], Kaboret et al [32], Soós and Minář [8], Pearse et al [33], Xue and Wang [34], Tavassoli and Bakht [35], Mashayekhi and Ashtar [36], de Jong et al [37], and Huang et al [16]. As G. flavipes is resurrected in the present paper we have given non-vouchered literature records for this species with a question mark.
DNA extraction, PCR amplification, and sequencing
Three fresh adult specimens (2 males, 1 female) of G. flavipes were selected for molecular analysis (S1 Table). A small sample of thoracic muscle tissue was dissected from each individual to extract the total genomic DNA using the DNeasy Blood and Tissue kit protocol (Qiagen, Dusseldorf, Germany). The remaining body parts were retained as vouchers and deposited in the entomological collection of Beijing Forestry University. An approximately 650-bp region near the 5’-terminus of the COI, the barcode region (Hebert et al., 2003; hereafter COI-5’), and a 663-bp region near the 3’-terminus of the COI (hereafter COI-3’) were PCR-amplified using the universal barcode primers LCO1490-L (5’-GGTCWACWAATCATAAAGATATTGG-3’) and HCO2198-L (5’-RAAACTTCWGGRTGWCCAAARAATCA-3’) [38,39], and COI-II-F (5’-CCACATTTATTTTGATTTTTTGG-3’) and COI-II-R (5’-TCCAATGCACTAATCTGCCATATTA-3’) [40] according to the Gasterophilus DNA barcoding system [21]. PCRs were conducted according to Zhang et al [41], and amplification followed Kutty et al [42]. All PCR products were purified and sequenced both forward and reverse by BGI Inc., Beijing, China. A total of 52 COI sequences obtained from GenBank, and six from Otranto et al [15] (the partial data were published without being uploaded to GenBank), representing all the seven Palaearctic Gasterophilus species, are included in our analyses. Hypoderma lineatum (Villers) (Hypodermatinae) and Dermatobia hominis (Linnaeus, Jr.) (Cuterebrinae) were chosen as outgroups, with the rooting done by D. hominis (S1 Table).
DNA sequence editing, assembling and alignment
SeqMan Pro v. 7.1.0 (DNASTAR Inc., USA) was used to edit and assemble the forward and reverse sequences. Alignment was conducted using the online version of MAFFT v. 7 [43] (available at https://mafft.cbrc.jp/alignment/server/), with the algorithm G-INS-i and default parameters. All the sequences are assembled, aligned and available in GenBank under the accession numbers: MK412087–MK412089 (S1 Table).
Results
Intra- and interspecific divergences of the COI gene among G. flavipes, G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis
Molecular analysis revealed very low interspecific nucleotide variation of the COI gene for the samples from G. flavipes, G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis, which is insufficient for identification and differentiation (Figs 1 and 2). For these three species, intraspecific variation of the COI-5’ barcode region was 0.10% (G. flavipes, SE = 0.10%), 1.10% (G. haemorrhoidalis, SE = 0.26%) and 1.42% (G. inermis, SE = 0.45%) (S2 Table), and for COI-3’ 0.10% (G. flavipes, SE = 0.10%), 0.30% (G. haemorrhoidalis, SE = 0.15%) and 0.76% (G. inermis, SE = 0.32%) (S3 Table). Interspecific variation for COI-5’ranged from 0.67% (G. flavipes and G. haemorrhoidalis, SE = 0.22%) to 1.11% (G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis, SE = 0.25%) (S4 Table); and for COI-3’ from 0.28% (G. flavipes and G. haemorrhoidalis, SE = 0.14%) to 0.45% (G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis, SE = 0.17%) (S5 Table).
Numbers given at branches refer to bootstrap proportions among 1000 bootstrap replicates. Red triangles indicate G. flavipes. Scale bar represents 0.01 nucleotide substitutions per site.
Numbers given at branches refer to bootstrap proportions among 1000 bootstrap replicates. Red triangles indicate G. flavipes. Asterisks indicate questionable identifications. Scale bar represents 0.01 nucleotide substitutions per site.
Key to the imagines of G. flavipes, G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis
(Figs 3–11 presenting characters in the key)
Gasterophilus spp., male habitus (A–C) and head and thorax (D–F), dorsal view. A, D. G. flavipes (Olivier). B, E. G. haemorrhoidalis (Linnaeus). C, F. G. inermis (Brauer). Scale bars: A–F = 0.5 mm.
Gasterophilus spp., male lateral habitus (A–C), head and thorax in lateral view (D–F) and head in frontal view (G–I). A, D, G. G. flavipes (Olivier). B, E, H. G. haemorrhoidalis (Linnaeus). C, F, I. G. inermis (Brauer). Scale bars: A–F = 1 mm; G–I = 0.5 mm.
Gasterophilus spp., male thorax (A–C) and abdomen (D–F) in dorsal view. A, D. G. flavipes (Olivier). B, E. G. haemorrhoidalis (Linnaeus). C, F. G. inermis (Brauer). Scale bars: A–F = 1 mm.
A, D. G. flavipes (Olivier). B, E. G. haemorrhoidalis (Linnaeus). C, F. G. inermis (Brauer). Scale bars: A–F = 0.5 mm.
(A, D, G. in anterior view. B, E. H. in left lateral view (mirrored for matching the left view of habitus and head); C, F, I. in dorsal view.). A–C. G. flavipes (Olivier). D–F. G. haemorrhoidalis (Linnaeus). G–I. G. inermis (Brauer). Scale bars: A–I = 0.5 mm. Abbreviations: cer, cercus; ph, phallus; pog, postgonite; pr l, processi longi; sur, surstylus.
Gasterophilus spp., female dorsal (A–C) and lateral habitus (D–F), and head in frontal view (G–I). A, D, G. G. flavipes (Olivier). B, E, H. G. haemorrhoidalis (Linnaeus). C, F, I. G. inermis (Brauer). Scale bars: A–F = 1mm; D, G–I = 0.5 mm.
Gasterophilus flavipes (Olivier), female terminalia (A–D) and egg (D). A. Left lateral view. B. Dorsal view. C. Ventral view. D. Left lateral view of the egg, female abdominal segment 7 and genitalia (mirrored for better comparison with 7A). Scale bars: A–D = 0.5 mm. Abbreviations: cer, cercus; epi, epiproct; sg 7, segment 7; p, pedicel; st 8, sternite 8; tg 8, tergite 8.
Gasterophilus haemorrhoidalis (Linnaeus), female genitalia (A–C) and egg (D). A. Left lateral view. B. Dorsal view. C. Ventral view. D. Left lateral view of the egg. Scale bars: A–D = 0. 5 mm.
Gasterophilus inermis (Brauer), female genitalia (A–C) and egg (D). A. Left lateral view. B. Dorsal view. C. Ventral view. D. Right lateral view of the egg. Scale bars: A–D = 0. 25 mm.
1. Frontal vitta and fronto-orbital plate ground colour uniformly yellow or dark brown in dorsal view (i.e., without clear colour difference/boundary); length ratio of male cercus and surstylus more than 2/3, male processi longi elongated (Grunin [3]: figs 34–36, 58–60, 68–70; Patton [23]: figs 4, 6); female cercus gradually tapered (Grunin [3]: figs 37–39; Patton [23]: figs 5, 7) …………………………………………Consult the keys of Grunin [3] and Zumpt [4]
--Ground colour of frontal vitta distinctly darker than fronto-orbital plate in dorsal view (i.e., with clear colour difference/boundary) (Fig 3D, 3E and 3F); length ratio of male cercus and surstylus equal or less than 1/3 (Fig 7C, 7F and 7I), male processi longi tubercular (Fig 7A, 7D and 7G); female cercus apex abruptly narrowed (Figs 9B, 10B and 11B) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………2
2. Wing with darkened patches with ill-defined edges, distance between crossvein r-m and dm-cu less than length of r-m (Figs 6C; 8C and 8F) ……………………………………………………………………………………………Gasterophilus inermis
--Wing entirely hyaline, distance between crossvein r-m and dm-cu at least twice as long as r-m (Figs 3A and 3B; 6A and 6B; 8A, 8B, 8D and 8E) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………3
3. Postsutural scutum with a light (yellowish), rectangular area near scutoscutellar suture (Fig 5A); legs yellow; abdominal ground colour yellow, covered with yellow setae (Fig 5D); male with surstylus gradually tapered proximally and distally (Fig 7A–7C); surstylar setae long, reaching the sagittal plane (Fig 7C) …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Gasterophilus flavipes
--Postsutural scutum with ground colour uniformly brown or black (Fig 5B); legs yellowish brown, with femora distinctly darkened; abdominal ground colour dark brown or black, with reddish-yellow or orangish setae posteriorly (Fig 5E); male with surstylus abruptly swollen at base (Fig 7D–7F); surstylar setae short, reaching at most halfway to the sagittal plane (Fig 7F) …………………………………………………………………………Gasterophilus haemorrhoidalis
Comparative redescription, hosts and distribution of G. flavipes, G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis
Head.
Width slightly less than width of thorax at middle (Fig 3). Head profile oval with largest width at level of antennal insertion (Fig 4). Width of frons 1/4 width of head in dorsal view (Fig 4G–4I). Ocellar triangle dark brown, with dense, dark brown hair-like setae. Each ocellus circled by a dark brown cuticular band. Frontal vitta dark yellow in G. flavipes and G. inermis, brown in G. haemorrhoidalis, with long, dark brown hair-like setae in G. flavipes and G. haemorrhoidalis, a mixture of brown and pale hair-like setae in G. inermis. Fronto-orbital plate pale yellow in G. flavipes and G. inermis, brown in G. haemorrhoidalis, with pale yellow hair-like setae, sparse in G. flavipes, dense in G. inermis; while the setae are dark brown in G. haemorrhoidalis. Antenna inserted at about middle of head. Antennal scape and pedicel yellow, postpedicel and arista brown (Fig 4G–4I). Antennal pedicel with a few long bristles, pale yellow in G. flavipes and G. inermis, dark brown in G. haemorrhoidalis. Postpedicel small, with the exposed part globular. Lunule pale yellow, bare. Facial plate bare. Parafacial plate yellow, with pale yellow hair-like setae. Gena and genal groove pale yellow, both covered with dense, pale yellow hair-like setae.
Thorax.
Ground colour dark brown or black (Fig 5), with a yellow, rectangular area near scutoscutellar suture only in G. flavipes (Figs 3D, 4D and 5A). Postpronotal lobe yellow, distinctly swollen; or sometimes with several tiny dark brown spots in G. inermis. Hair-like setae mainly yellow, or with a narrow dark brown band on postsutural scutum. In G. haemorrhoidalis, a mixture of yellow and dark brown or black setae on postalar callus, and the setae anteriorly yellow and posteriorly dark brown on scutellum. Meron brown and bare.
Wing.
Entirely hyaline in G. flavipes and G. haemorrhoidalis (Figs 3A and 3B; 6A and 6B), partly infuscated, with darkened patches with ill-defined edges in G. inermis (Fig 6C). Tegula and basicosta dark brown. Crossvein r-m situated much closer to the base of the wing than to crossvein dm-cu; distance between crossvein r-m and d-m at least twice as long as r-m; while in G. inermis, crossvein r-m situated almost at the opposite of crossvein dm-cu.
Legs.
Totally yellow in G. flavipes, dark yellow or brown in G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis, with femora distinctly darkened. Trochanters unarmed, with long, pale yellow hair-like setae. Femora with long, hair-like setae, totally yellow in G. flavipes, brown anterodorsally and yellow posteroventrally in G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis. Tibiae setae short, yellow in G. flavipes, a mixture of yellow and brown setaein G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis. Hind tibia not swollen (Fig 6D–6F). Hind tarsus with long and strong yellow setae in G. flavipes and G. haemorrhoidalis, sparse dorsolaterally and dense ventrolaterally; the setae shorter and sparser in G. inermis. Tarsal claws yellow at base and dark brown or black at tip, shorter than fifth tarsomere in G. flavipes and G. inermis, but approximately as long as the fifth tarsomere in G. haemorrhoidalis. Pulvilli yellowish.
Abdomen.
Ground colour mainly yellowish-brown, with a set of variously shaped, sometimes faint and ambiguous dark brown spots dorsally and laterally in G. flavipes and G. inermis (Fig 5D and 5F); while in G. haemorrhoidalis, the colour dark brown or black (Fig 5E). Hair-like setae mainly yellow in G. flavipes and G. inermis, yellow anteriorly black in the middle, and reddish-yellow or orangish posteriorly in G. haemorrhoidalis. Sternites yellow. Male cercus short and broad, length-width ratio less than 1.0; surstylus yellow, gradually tapered proximally and distally, with gradually tapered apex in G. flavipes (Fig 7A–7C), an abruptly swollen lobe near base dorsally rounded apex in G. haemorrhoidalis (Fig 7D–7F), and rounded apex in G. inermis (Fig 7G–7J); surstylar setae long, reaching the sagittal plane in G. flavipes (Fig 7C), while short, reaching at most halfway to the sagittal plane in G. haemorrhoidalis (Fig 7F) and G. inermis.
Female.
Like the male (Fig 8), except for the following. Width of frons 1/3 width of head in dorsal view (Fig 8G–8I). In G. inermis, hair-like setae on fronto-orbital and parafacial plate shorter, sparser and darker than the male, forming a dark longitudinal spot at the lower part of parafacial plate on each side (Fig 8I); femur with dark brown or black hair-like setae on the anterior surface of all legs. Abdomen conical, terminalia long and curved forward; segment 7 broader than long; sternite 8 longitudinally ridged in the middle and with scallop-shaped apex (Figs 8D–8F; 9A–9C; 10A–10C; 11A–11C).
Egg.
Brownish black, posterior part (a continuation of the broad chorionic flanges) elongated as a short and thick pedicel in G. flavipes, with length-width ratio around 1/4 in lateral view, accounting for 1/3 of the total egg length (Fig 9D); while in G. haemorrhoidalis the pedicel is long and slender, with length-width ratio around 1/6 in lateral view, accounting for 2/5 of the total egg length (Fig 10D). The egg of G. inermis yellowish, stalkless, elongate ovoid in shape, with the broad chorionic flanges accounting for 7/10 of the total egg length (Fig 11D).
Hosts.
Donkey (Equus africanus asinus Linnaeus) was given as the host for G. flavipes by Brauer (1863) without evidence; Burchell’s zebra (Equus quagga burchellii Gray), horse [E. ferus caballus Linnaeus, E. ferus przewalskii (Poliakov)], and Mongolian wild ass (E. hemionus hemionus Pallas) are hosts for both G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis, with donkey and Mountain zebra [E. zebra (Linnaeus)] as hosts for G. haemorrhoidalis as well.
Distribution.
Non-vouchered literature records given with a question mark. So far, G. flavipes is mainly recorded from the Palaearctic region: China (Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang), Croatia?, Cyprus, Egypt?, France, Iran?, Kazakhstan?, Libya, Morocco, Russia (Siberia), Spain?, Turkey?. Gasterophilus inermis is distributed in the Afrotropical, Nearctic and Palaearctic regions, and G. haemorrhoidalis in all biogeographical regions.
Diagnosis, examined material and distribution of G. flavipes, G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis are provided in S1 File.
Discussion
The distinctive morphology of egg, male terminalia and female ovipositor documented here is considered unequivocal evidence for a specific separation of G. flavipes and G. haemorrhoidalis. The original description by Olivier [22] provides only a brief description of the adult, and the name-bearing type from the French Pyrenees could not be located and must be considered as lost. However, the species was widely recognized among the early authors (for references see Brauer [2] and Paramonov [47]), and when Patton [23] provided detailed illustrations of the male terminalia, his aim was not to test the validity of a questionable nominal species but to take advantage of what had become a routine approach of documenting male terminalia to provide users with a more reliable identification tool. Patton [23] noted that his illustrations would “speak for themselves” (p. 351), and that only brief mention would be needed for the diagnostic features of each species. While Patton explicitly pointed to several of the differences also mentioned here, he did not stress the marked difference in surstylar setosity so evident from his illustrations (Patton [23]: Figs 1A and 3A). Patton’s illustrations do not do justice to the equally marked difference in surstylar shape (Fig 7D–7I), which may explain why Zumpt and Paterson [24] and Grunin [3,29] did not recognize G. flavipes as a valid species.
The COI gene is unable to provide a reliable separation of G. flavipes from G. haemorrhoidalis as well as from G. inermis, which may be seen as evidence of recent divergence [46,48] as has been reported for many other species in Diptera [46,49,50]. It is noteworthy that the genetic distance of the traditional DNA barcode region is higher between G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis than between G. haemorrhoidalis and G. flavipes, which matches the higher degree of morphological similarity between the latter two species. The distribution of G. flavipes with vouchered records from around the Mediterranean and from Central Asia appears to be more restricted than, but fully sympatric with that of G. haemorrhoidalis. The type locality for G. flavipes (French Pyrenees) therefore appears to be in the periphery of its range, but it is here considered not to pose any conflict. A neotype has not been designated, partly as we do not see an exceptional need (as required by ICZN [51]: Article 75.3), and partly because suitable material from or close to the type locality has not been available.
High diversity of equid hosts appears to facilitate the diversification of Gasterophilus species [15]. Species diversity and population size of Gasterophilus have declined due to the decreased number of other equid reservoirs (e.g. donkeys) and the highly effective and widespread use of anti-parasitic drugs for domestic animals [15,19]. Nevertheless, all the seven Palaearctic Gasterophilus species have been recorded in Xinjiang [17,20,21], which represents the highest species diversity of this genus worldwide [3,4,6,15,52,53]. Even more, at least six of these seven species (data unavailable for G. flavipes) appear to hold stable populations here according to current epidemiological investigations [16,17,21], which makes Xinjiang the world hotspot for Gasterophilus. Xinjiang possesses a large area of Gobi Desert where thousands of free-ranging Mongolian asses (E. hemionus hemionus), semi-captive horses (E. ferus przewalskii), and domestic horses (E. ferus caballus) and donkeys (E. africanus asinus) are distributed [16,17,21], which provide more sustainable environment and a larger host carrying capacity than in the western Palaearctic, where populations of Gasterophilus appear to be in decline [15]. Considering that species richness of obligate parasites is tightly correlated with that of their hosts [54,55], we suggest that the availability of a diverse equid fauna in Xinjiang is the main reason for the high number of Gasterophilus species. The high number of free-grazing equids (e.g. Mongolian asses and Przewalski's horse), which are free from anti-parasitic treatments, may be an important factor in maintaining the high number of Gasterophilus species in Xinjiang as well [15,19].
Our study shows that morphological characters are still indispensable for a reliable species-level identification of adult Gasterophilus specimens. The primary field investigation suggests that G. flavipes, which takes up 62% of the Gasterophilus samples collected by Malaise trap, is prevalent in Xinjiang. The confusion between the overlooked G. flavipes and the morphologically and molecularly similar G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis calls for more careful veterinarian investigations and a re-assessment of the epidemiology of gasterophilosis in areas where G. flavipes is known or supposed to occur.
Supporting information
S1 Table. Specimen information, molecular markers, GenBank accession numbers, collecting localities and references for Gasterophilus species.
Collecting localities are given with country and province.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220820.s001
(DOCX)
S2 Table. Intraspecific genetic divergences (using K2P model) and standard error estimate(s) (1000 bootstrap replicates) of the traditional barcode region (670-bp region near the 5' terminus of COI) in Gasterophilus species.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220820.s002
(DOCX)
S3 Table. Intraspecific genetic divergences (using K2P model) and standard error estimate(s) (1000 replicates of bootstrap) of a 663-bp region near the 3' terminus of COI in the seven Palaearctic species of Gasterophilus.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220820.s003
(DOCX)
S4 Table. Interspecific percentage genetic divergences (using K2P model) of the traditional DNA barcode region (670-bp region near the 5' terminus of COI) in Gasterophilus species. Standard error estimate(s) (1000 bootstrap replicates) are shown under the diagonal.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220820.s004
(DOCX)
S5 Table. Interspecific percentage genetic divergences (using K2P model) of a 663-bp region near the 3' terminus of COI in Gasterophilus species.
Standard error estimate(s) (1000 bootstrap replicates) are shown under the diagonal.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220820.s005
(DOCX)
S1 File. Diagnosis, examined material and distribution of Gasterophilus flavipes, G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220820.s006
(PDF)
Acknowledgments
We wish to thank W.-y. Pei, L.-p. Tang and Y.-q. Ge (Beijing Forestry University) for their help in setting and emptying Malaise traps in Xinjiang. We are grateful to Prof. Jun Chen and Ms. Hong Liu (Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences) for kindly arranging for loans of Gasterophilus specimens, Peter Sehnal (Naturhistorisches Museum Wien) for taking a set of high-resolution photographs of the type specimens of Gasterophilus inermis and Nigel Wyatt (Natural History Museum, London) for providing locality details of particular specimens. Director of Xinjiang Forestry Bureau, Hong-jun Chu, kindly arranged for relevant collecting permit.
References
- 1. Brauer F. Neue Beiträge zur Kenntniss der europäischen Oestriden. Verhandlungen der Kais Zool Gesellschaft Wien. 1858;8: 464.
- 2.
Brauer F. Monographie der Oestriden. Wien: W. Braumüller; 1863.
- 3.
Grunin KJ. Gasterophilidae. In: Lindner E., editor. Die Fliegen der Paläarktischen Region. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart’sche; 1969. pp. 1–66.
- 4.
Zumpt F. Myiasis of Man and Animals in the Old World. London: Butterworths Ltd.; 1965.
- 5. Papavero N. The world Oestridae (Diptera) mammals and continental drift. Ser Entomol. 1977;14: 1–240.
- 6.
Colwell DD, Hall MJR, Scholl PJ. The oestrid flies: biology, host-parasite relationships, impact and management. Colwell DD, Hall MJR, Scholl PJ, editors. Wallingford: CABI; 2006. https://doi.org/10.1079/9780851996844.0000
- 7.
Pont AC. Familiy Oestridae. In: Delfinado M, Hardy D, editors. A Catalog of the Diptera of the Oriental Region: Suborder Cyclorrhapha. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii; 1973. pp. 700–701.
- 8.
Soós À, Minář J. Family Gasterophilidae. In: Soós À, Papp L, editors. Catalogue of Palaearctic Diptera, Vol 11 Scathophagidae—Hypodermatidae. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1986. pp. 237–240.
- 9.
Wood DM. Oestridae. In: McAlpine JF, editor. Manual of Nearctic Diptera, Vol 2. Ottawa: Research Branch, Agriculture Canada; 1987. pp. 1147–1158.
- 10. Hall M, Wall R. Myiasis of humans and domestic animals. Adv Parasitol. 1995;35: 257–334. pmid:7709854
- 11. Sequeira JL, Tostes RA, Oliveira-Sequeira TCG. Prevalence and macro- and microscopic lesions produced by Gasterophilus nasalis (Diptera: Oestridae) in the Botucatu Region, SP, Brazil. Vet Parasitol. 2001;102: 261–266. pmid:11777606
- 12.
Wood DM. Morphology of Adult Oestridae. In: Colwell DD, Hall MJR, Scholl PJ, editors. The oestrid flies: biology, host-parasite relationships, impact and management. Wallingford: CABI; 2006. pp. 79–80.
- 13. Bezdekova B, Jahn P, Vyskocil M. Pathomorphological study on gastroduodenal ulceration in horses: Localisation of lesions. Acta Vet Hung. 2007;55: 241–249. pmid:17555289
- 14. Getachew AM, Innocent G, Trawford AF, Reid SWJ, Love S. Gasterophilosis: A major cause of rectal prolapse in working donkeys in Ethiopia. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2012;44: 757–762. pmid:21870062
- 15. Otranto D, Milillo P, Capelli G, Colwell DD. Species composition of Gasterophilus spp. (Diptera, Oestridae) causing equine gastric myiasis in southern Italy: Parasite biodiversity and risks for extinction. Vet Parasitol. 2005;133: 111–118. pmid:15978726
- 16. Huang H, Zhang B, Chu H, Zhang D, Li K. Gasterophilus (Diptera, Gasterophilidae) infestation of equids in the Kalamaili Nature Reserve, China. Parasite. 2016.
- 17. Liu SH, Li K, Hu DF. The incidence and species composition of Gasterophilus (Diptera, Gasterophilidae) causing equine myiasis in northern Xinjiang, China. Vet Parasitol. 2016;217: 36–38. pmid:26827858
- 18. Pawlas-Opiela M, Wojciech Ł, Sołtysiak Z, Otranto D, Ugorski M. Molecular comparison of Gasterophilus intestinalis and Gasterophilus nasalis from two distinct areas of Poland and Italy based on cox1 sequence analysis. Vet Parasitol. 2010;169: 219–221. pmid:20080351
- 19. Colwell DD, Otranto D, Stevens JR. Oestrid flies: eradication and extinction versus biodiversity. Trends Parasitol. 2009;25: 500–504. pmid:19762281
- 20. Huang H, Chu H, Cao J, Bu L, Hu D, Zhang D, et al. Distribution of Gasterophilus (Diptera, Gasterophilidae) Myiasis Foci in Arid Desert Steppe: a case study of Kalamaili Mountain Ungulate Nature Reserve. Linye Kexue/Scientia Silvae Sin. 2017;53.
- 21. Li X, Chen Y, Wange Q, Li K, Pape T, Dong Z. Molecular and morphological characterization of third instar Palaearctic horse stomach bot fly larvae (Oestridae: Gasterophilinae, Gasterophilus). Vet Parasitol. 2018;262: 56–74. pmid:30389013
- 22.
Olivier GA. Encyclopédie méthodique. Histoire naturelle. Insectes. Paris: Histoire naturelle; 1811.
- 23. Patton WS. Studies on the higher Diptera of medical and veterinary importance. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 1937;31: 351–359.
- 24. Zumpt F, Paterson HE. Studies on the family Gasterophilidae, with keys to the adults and maggots. J Entomol Soc South Afr. 1953;16: 59–72.
- 25. Pape T. Phylogeny of Oestridae (Insecta: Diptera). Syst Entomol. 2001;26: 133–171.
- 26.
Cumming JM, Wood DM. Adult morphology and terminology. In: Brown BV, Borkent A, Cumming JM, editors. Manual of Central American Diptera Vol1. Ottawa: NRC Research Press; 2009. pp. 9–50.
- 27.
Guimarães JH. Family Gasterophilidae. A Catalogue of the Diptera of the Americas South of the United States. São Paulo: Departamento de Zoologia, Secretaria da Agricultura; 1967. pp. 1–2.
- 28.
Guimarães JH, Papavero N. Myiasis caused by obligatory parasites. III. Gasterophilus Leach (Gasterophilidae). Myiasis in Man and Animals in the Neotropical Region; Bibliographic Database. São Paulo: Editora Plêiade; 1999. pp. 167–173.
- 29.
Grunin KJ. Gastrophilidae. In: Lindner E., editor. Fauna URSS, Insecta: Diptera. Moscow: Education of Academy of Sciences of USSR; 1955. pp. 1–96.
- 30.
James MT. The flies that cause myiasis in man. Washington: United States Goverment Printing Office; 1974.
- 31.
Pont AC. Family Gasterophilidae. In: Crosskey RW, editor. Catalogue of the Diptera of the Afrotropical Region. British Museum of Natural History; 1980. pp. 883–884.
- 32. Kaboret Y, Pangui LJ, Vercruysse J. Note on gasterophilosis in donkeys in Burkina Faso. Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop. 1986;39.
- 33. Pearse B, Peucker S, Cottam R. Identification of Gasterophilus haemorrhoidalis in Queensland. Aust Vet J. 1989;66: 380. pmid:2619658
- 34.
Xue WQ, Wang MF. Gasterophilidae. Flies of ChinaVol2. Shenyang: Liaoning Science and Technology Press; 1996. pp. 2207–2215.
- 35. Tavassoli M, Bakht M. Gastrophilus spp. myiasis in Iranian equine. Sci Parasitol. 2012;13: 83–86.
- 36. Mashayekhi M, Ashtari B. Study of Gasterophilus role in Equine Gastric Ulcer Syndrome in Tabriz area. Bull Environ Pharmacol Life Sci. 2013;2: 169–172.
- 37. de Jong Y, Verbeek M, Michelsen V, Bjørn P de P, Los W, Steeman F, et al. Fauna Europaea–all European animal species on the web. Biodivers Data J. 2014;2: e4034. pmid:25349527
- 38. Folmer O, Black M, Hoeh W, Lutz R, Vrijenhoek R. DNA primers for amplification of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I from diverse metazoan invertebrates. Hansson B, editor. Mol Mar Biol Biotechnol. 1994;3: 294–299. pmid:7881515
- 39. Nelson LA, Wallman JF, Dowton M. Using COI barcodes to identify forensically and medically important blowflies. Med Vet Entomol. 2007;21: 44–52. pmid:17373946
- 40. Jordaens K, Sonet G, Richet R, Dupont E, Braet Y, Desmyter S. Identification of forensically important Sarcophaga species (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) using the mitochondrial COI gene. Int J Legal Med. 2013;127: 491–504. pmid:22960880
- 41. Zhang D, Yan L, Zhang M, Chu H, Cao J, Li K, et al. Phylogenetic inference of calyptrates, with the first mitogenomes for Gasterophilinae (Diptera: Oestridae) and Paramacronychiinae (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). Int J Biol Sci. 2016;12: 489–504. pmid:27019632
- 42. Kutty SN, Pape T, Wiegmann BM, Meier R. Molecular phylogeny of the Calyptratae (Diptera: Cyclorrhapha) with an emphasis on the superfamily Oestroidea and the position of Mystacinobiidae and McAlpine’s fly. Syst Entomol. 2010;35: 614–635.
- 43. Katoh K, Standley DM. MAFFT multiple sequence alignment software version 7: Improvements in performance and usability. Mol Biol Evol. 2013;30: 772–780. pmid:23329690
- 44. Kumar S, Stecher G, Li M, Knyaz C, Tamura K. MEGA X: Molecular evolutionary genetics analysis across computing platforms. Mol Biol Evol. 2018;35: 1547–1549. pmid:29722887
- 45.
Nei M, Kumar S. Molecular Evolution and Phylogenetics. New York: Oxford University Press; 2000.
- 46. Meier R, Shiyang K, Vaidya G, Ng PKL. DNA barcoding and taxonomy in diptera: A tale of high intraspecific variability and low identification success. Syst Biol. 2006;55: 715–728. pmid:17060194
- 47. Paramonov SJ. Flies of the genus Gastrophilus and their control. Kiev: Kiev: Acad. des Sci. Zoo; 1940.
- 48. Meier R, Zhang G, Ali F. The use of mean instead of smallest interspecific distances exaggerates the size of the “barcoding gap” and leads to misidentification. Syst Biol. 2008;57: 809–813. pmid:18853366
- 49. Buenaventura E, Valverde-Castro C, Wolff M, Triana-Chavez O, Gómez-Palacio A. DNA barcoding for identifying synanthropic flesh flies (Diptera, Sarcophagidae) of Colombia. Acta Trop. 2018;182: 291–297. pmid:29408406
- 50. Meiklejohn KA, Wallman JF, Dowton M. DNA-based identification of forensically important Australian Sarcophagidae (Diptera). Int J Legal Med. 2011;125: 27–32. pmid:19997851
- 51.
ICZN. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. 4th ed. Lindner E, editor. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart’sche; 1999.
- 52. Felix SR, Silva CE, Schmidtt E, Nizoli LQ, Götze MM, Silva SS. Presence of Gasterophilus (Leach, 1817) (Diptera: Oestridae) in horses in Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. Parasitol Latinoam. 2007;62: 122–126.
- 53. Pilo C, Altea A, Scala A. Gasterophilosis in horses in Sardinia (Italy): effect of meteorological variables on adult egg-laying activity and presence of larvae in the digestive tract, and update of species. Parasitol Res. 2015;114: 1693–1702. pmid:25663068
- 54. Lafferty KD. Biodiversity loss decreases parasite diversity: Theory and patterns. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 2012. pp. 2814–2827. pmid:22966137
- 55. Kamiya T , O’Dwyer K, Nakagawa S, Poulin R. Host diversity drives parasite diversity: meta-analytical insights into patterns and causal mechanisms. Ecography (Cop). 2014;37: 689–697.