Figures
Abstract
Broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) that target the HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins (Env) can prevent virus acquisition, but several Env properties limit its ability to induce an antibody response that is of sufficient quantity and quality. The immunogenicity of Env can be increased by fusion to co-stimulatory molecules and here we describe novel soluble Env trimers with embedded interleukin-4 (IL-4) or interleukin-21 (IL-21) domains, designed to activate B cells that recognize Env. In particular, the chimeric EnvIL-21 molecule activated B cells efficiently and induced the differentiation of antibody secreting plasmablast-like cells. We studied whether we could increase the activity of the embedded IL-21 by designing a chimeric IL-21/IL-4 (ChimIL-21/4) molecule and by introducing amino acid substitutions in the receptor binding domain of IL-21 that were predicted to enhance its binding. In addition, we incorporated IL-21 into a cleavable Env trimer and found that insertion of IL-21 did not impair Env cleavage, while Env cleavage did not impair IL-21 activity. These studies should guide the further design of chimeric proteins and EnvIL-21 may prove useful in improving antibody responses against HIV-1.
Citation: Isik G, Chung NPY, van Montfort T, Menis S, Matthews K, Schief WR, et al. (2013) An HIV-1 Envelope Glycoprotein Trimer with an Embedded IL-21 Domain Activates Human B Cells. PLoS ONE 8(6): e67309. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0067309
Editor: Shibo Jiang, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, China
Received: April 4, 2013; Accepted: May 16, 2013; Published: June 24, 2013
Copyright: © 2013 Isik et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: This research was supported by the Aids Fonds (the Netherlands) grants #2008013 and #2009012 and by National Institutes of Health Grants POI AI82362 and R37 AI36082. RWS is a recipient of a Vidi fellowship from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, and a Starting Investigator grant from the European Research Council (ERC-StG-2011-280829-SHEV). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Introduction
Ideally, an HIV-1 vaccine should activate the innate, humoral and cellular arms of the immune system and different strategies are pursued to do so. A vaccine designed to induce both B and T cell responses by combining an HIV-1 protein expressing poxvirus prime with a recombinant envelope glycoprotein (Env) boost showed 31% efficacy without inducing any bNAbs [1], [2]. The induction of broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) by Env subunit vaccines remains one of the top priorities of HIV-1 vaccine research.
Non-human primates can be protected from SHIV infection by passive immunization of bNAbs [3]–[9], but to date such bNAbs have not been induced by any vaccine. The only relevant viral protein for the induction of bNAbs is the Env spike on the surface of the virus particle. However, a number of structural properties of Env limit the induction of bNAbs. First, conserved protein bNAb targets are shielded by Env domains that are highly variable in sequence between different HIV-1 isolates [10]–[15]. Although a number of glycan-dependent bNAbs have been identified [16]–[19], the majority of Env protein domains are protected from Ab recognition by Env’s “glycan shield” [20]–[22]. Furthermore, nonfunctional Env forms on the surface of HIV-1 particles, infected cells or monomeric gp120 shed from Env trimers expose immunodominant decoy epitopes that may divert the humoral response from bNAb epitopes on functional Env trimers [23]–[26]. Although the effect on immunogenicity is not resolved, processing of the Env glycoprotein precursor gp160 into gp120 and gp41 can affect the exposure of epitopes on Env. bNAbs interact more efficiently with cleaved Env, whereas non-neutralizing Abs react more strongly with uncleaved Env [27]–[31].
These properties influence the specificity of the Ab response, i.e. they favor the induction of non-neutralizing Abs over bNAbs. There is also evidence that Env directly modulates the quantity and the quality of the Ab response to itself. The Ab response against Env requires multiple booster vaccinations and wanes quickly with a half-life of 30–60 days [32], [33]. One explanation is that N-linked oligomannose glycans on Env actively suppress immune cell functioning [34]–[37]. Indeed, vaccination studies in mice showed that de-mannosylated gp120 was more immunogenic than unmodified gp120 [38]. Taken together, a variety of Env properties may reduce its immunogenicity.
The abilities of Env to circumvent the host immune responses oblige vaccinologists to search for unconventional approaches to improve its immunogenicity. The co-delivery of immunogens with adjuvants is a frequently used strategy to improve the immunogenicity of a vaccine. Moreover, the immunogenicity of vaccines can also be increased by co-deliverying genes encoding molecular adjuvants, including but not limited to cytokines and chemokines such as IL-12, IL-28, GM-CSF, and IL-15 [39], [40]. The addition of costimulatory molecules also provides an opportunity to skew the immune response in a desirable direction.
We are pursuing a vaccine strategy in which we covalently link the antigen (i.e. Env) with the molecular adjuvant. We have previously described soluble gp140 Env trimers with an embedded Granulocyte Macrophage Colony Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) [41], [42] a survival, proliferation and differentiation factor for several hematopoietic precursor cell populations [43]–[45]. The chimeric EnvGM-CSF protein was created by substituting the variable loops 1 and 2 (V1V2) of Env with an almost complete GM-CSF sequence. Env trimers with embedded GM-CSF induced enhanced Env-specific antibody and T helper responses in mice [42]. We have also shown that targeting Env trimers to B cells via fusion to APRIL, which is an important co-stimulatory molecule for humoral immunity that drives antibody class-switching toward IgG and IgA and plasma cell survival [46]–[48], enhances Env-specific antibody responses [49].
We hypothesized that the common gamma chain family members interleukin-4 (IL-4) and in particular interleukin-21 (IL-21), which have a similar four-helix structure as GM-CSF [50], might be useful to aid the immunogenicity of Env. IL-4 and IL-21 are pleiotropic cytokines acting on both innate and adaptive immune responses. IL-21 augments antibody production, and class switching by B cells [51], [52], and drives the differentiation of B cells to antibody secreting plasma cells [51], [53]. IL-21 is produced by multiple T helper populations such as activated CD4+ T cells, natural killer T (NKT), and in particular T-follicular helper cells [54]–[56]. IL-21 autocrinely activates follicular helper cells in germinal centers [57], [58] where mature B cells rapidly proliferate, differentiate, and go through somatic hypermutation and class-switching processes during a normal immune response to an infection [59]. Finally, IL-21 can activate CD8+ T cells to become killer cells by increasing their granzyme B and perforin expression [60], [61]. The immunomodulatory roles of IL-21 have raised considerable interest in its therapeutic use, and it has been evaluated in a number of clinical trials against, for example, metastatic melanoma and renal cancer [60], [62]. So far, these clinical trials have provided IL-21 with a good clinical track record in terms of safety.
Previous studies have shown that the function of recombinant IL-21 can be improved. For example, IL-21 signaling can be enhanced by 10-fold by replacing a structurally unstable region of IL-21 around helix C and the CD loop with the homologous and structurally more stable region from IL-4, probably preforming IL-21 in the receptor bound state [63]. Furthermore, Kang et al. predicted IL-21 residues important for interaction with the α and the γC chains of the IL21 receptor based on homology modeling and alignment with related cytokines such as IL-2 and IL-4 and investigated these residues by mutagenesis [64]. Three mutants were identified (D18A, S113A, and K117A) that have a slightly increased γC binding capacity, most likely due to a slower dissociation rate compared to wild type hIL-21. Other mutants had increased affinity for the IL-21R α chain (R11A, E100A, Q116A and L123A).
Here, we investigated whether trimeric HIV-1 Env proteins with IL-4 or IL-21 incorporated into the V1V2 domain could activate human B cells. In addition, we evaluated a number of IL-21 variants. We present evidence that a number of chimeric EnvIL-21 constructs potently activate B cells and induce immunoglobulin secretion from these cells. These chimeric proteins might be useful as vaccines aimed at inducing humoral immunity against HIV-1.
Results
Design of HIV-1 Env trimers with an Embedded IL-4 or IL-21 Domain
With the aim of targeting HIV-1 Env to B cells and simultaneously activating these cells, we designed chimeric Env constructs by replacing the V1V2 domain of gp140 with the nearly complete sequence of human interleukin 4 (IL-4) or interleukin 21 (IL-21). The uncleaved gp140, which is fused to a C-terminal trimerization domain, is based on the JR-FL strain and is described in more detail elsewhere [11], [27], [65]–[67]. The removal of the V1V2 domain is also described elsewhere [42], [68]. Briefly, 129 amino acids of IL-4 (residues 1 to 129) or 126 amino acids of IL-21 (residues 1 to 126) were inserted after the second cysteine bridge in the V1V2 stem between amino acids 127 and 195 (Fig. 1A & 1B). Three amino acid long linkers were added to the N and C-terminus of IL-4 and IL-21 to ensure flexibility at the junctions of the cytokine domains and Env.
Linear (A) and cartoon (B) representation of the original Env gp140 and chimeric EnvIL-4 and EnvIL-21. The clade B JRFL gp140 protein (amino acids 31 to 681) contains several modifications for stabilization that have been previously described (see Materials and Methods). Codon optimized sequences encoding human IL-4 (129 amino acids) and IL-21 (126 amino acids) were inserted to the V1V2 domain of gp140. Env sub-domains are indicated: 5 conserved domains (C1–C5); 5 variable domains (V1–V5); heptad repeats 1 and 2 (HR1, HR2); the trimerization domain (IZ) and the histidine tag, comprised of 8 histidine amino acids (HIS). The glycan assignments in Env are based on previous studies using gp120 [85]–[87]. (C) Chimeric EnvIL-4 and EnvIL-21 proteins expressed transiently in 293T cells were analyzed in reducing SDS-PAGE analysis followed by western blot. (D) Models of EnvIL-21 trimers. hIL-21 (green) is shown in up, side or down orientations attached to gp120 (cyan). The models were generated using Chimera [82], RosettaDesign [84] and RosettaRemodel as described in the materials and methods section, and rendered using Pymol [88].
We transiently transfected 293T cells with plasmids encoding gp140 (Envwt), gp140IL-4 (EnvIL-4) and gp140IL-21 (EnvIL-21). The expression of EnvIL-4 was comparable to Envwt whereas that of EnvIL-21 was decreased. The EnvIL-4 and EnvIL-21 proteins were approximately equal in size compared to Envwt (Fig. 1C). Some gp120 was also visible, derived from cleaved Env. As reported previously, JRFL gp140 with a C-terminal trimerization domain is not cleaved efficiently between gp120 and gp41, resulting in uncleaved gp140 as the predominant species although some cleavage does occur yielding gp120 [42], [68], [69].
We generated a structural model of the EnvIL-21 trimer based on the atomic structures of gp120 [70], a gp120 trimer model [71], the structure of IL-21 [63], and additional information we obtained from the antigenicity and functional data (see below). The hIL-21 sequence was grafted onto the V1V2 stem. An EnvhIL-21 trimer and IL-21 with different orientations in all three protomers is shown in Fig. 1D. All the models are compatible with VRC01, b12 and CD4 binding. Due to the flexibility of the linkers, IL-21 can be modeled on the gp120 core in multiple orientations and the number of conformational possibilities is quite large. The construct is likely to sample all possible orientations.
Chimeric EnvIL-4 and EnvIL-21 Interact with Conformational Antibodies
We evaluated the antigenic structure and folding of EnvIL-4 and EnvIL-21 compared to Envwt by using a trimer ELISA. The oligomannose N-glycan binding 2G12 bNAb bound to EnvIL-4 and EnvIL-21 as efficiently as to Envwt while binding of HIVIg (pooled polyclonal Ig from HIV-positive patient sera) was slightly reduced, probably due to the lack of the V1V2 domain (Fig. 2A). The binding of the CD4 binding site (CD4bs) b12 bNAb and the receptor mimic CD4-IgG2 was slightly reduced for both EnvIL-4 and EnvIL-21, consistent with what we have observed previously for EnvGM-CSF and other EnvGM-CSF variants (Fig. 2B) [41], [42]. The CD4-induced (CD4i) MAb 48d did not bind efficiently to any of the three constructs in the absence of CD4. In the presence of CD4, 48d bound efficiently to Envwt, but its binding to EnvIL-4 and EnvIL-21 was limited, consistent with our previous findings that replacement of the V1V2 with a cytokine domain partially traps Env in the unliganded-state and blocks CD4-induced conformational changes (Fig. 2C) [41].
ELISA reactivity of EnvIL-4 and EnvIL-21 with 2G12 and HIV-Ig (A); b12 and CD4-IgG2 (B); and 48d (CD4i) in the absence and presence of sCD4 at 1 µg/ml (C). All ELISA results are representative for at least three independent experiments using proteins derived from three independent transfections.
Chimeric EnvIL-21 Drives the Differentiation of Humans B Cells into Immunoglobulin Secreting Plasmablasts
The functionalities of the IL-4 and IL-21 inserted into Env were tested by performing experiments with purified human B cells. The B cells were isolated from human PBMC and cultured in the presence of supernatants from 293T cells expressing Envwt, EnvIL-4, EnvIL-21 and untransfected cells (Mock) or alternatively with pure recombinant IL-4 (rhIL-4) and IL-21 (rhIL-21), in a background milieu containing CD40L and IL-10 (Fig. 3A) or CD40L, IL-10 and IL-4, to support B cell activation (Fig. 3B). The Env protein levels for different constructs were normalized based on an anti-Env ELISA using the 2G12 MAb. After 14 days of culture, total IgG, IgA and IgM levels in the supernatants were determined by an immunoglobulin ELISA. The wild type Env protein (Envwt) induced low levels of IgG, IgA and IgM from B cells, consistent with previous reports demonstrating that Env can activate B cells through binding to lectin receptors [72]. EnvIL-21 significantly and consistently augmented the total IgG, IgA and IgM levels in both CD40L/IL-10 and CD40L/IL-4/IL-10 supplemented environments, although the level of enhancement was highly dependent on the donor (Fig. 3C & 3D). In some donors, the fold change values of EnvIL-21 compared to Envwt were as high as 21, 6.5 and 13 for IgG, IgA, and IgM, respectively. Compared to unmodified Env (Envwt), we did not observe a consistent enhancement in immunoglobulin secretion from B cells treated with EnvIL-4 (Fig. 3A & 3B).
IgG, IgA and IgM levels secreted by the B cells from human PBMCs cultured with (A) CD40L/IL-10 and (B) CD40L/IL-4/IL-10. Data are representative of three independent experiments showing similar results. Immunoglobulin secretion by B cells from different donors cultured with Envwt and EnvIL-21 molecules in (C) CD40L/IL-10 and (D) CD40L/IL-4/IL-10 milieu. Culture supernatant from mock transfected 293T cells was used as a negative control and the values were deducted from the test values. Data represent the fold change values compared to Envwt from at least 12 donors and each donor sample was tested in duplicate. (E) The expression of cell surface markers CD38 and CD27 on B cells cultured with Envwt, EnvIL-21, EnvChimIL-21/4 supernatants and controls in CD40L/IL-10 milieu. Data are representative of three experiments using B cells from three different donors. (F) The expression of CD38 cell surface marker treated with different EnvIL-21 constructs and controls in CD40L/IL-10 milieu. Data are representative of six experiments using B cells from six different donors.
We next evaluated the expression of surface markers on B cells cultured with Envwt, EnvIL-21 supernatants and controls, again in a milieu that contained CD40L and IL-10. Unmodified Env induced the up-regulation of the B cell activation marker CD38 and the memory B cell marker CD27 (20% double positive cells), indicative of a plasmablast phenotype, consistent with previous reports [72]. EnvIL-21 further enhanced the numbers of CD38+CD27+ plasmablast-like cells (26%) similar to the level reached with rhIL-21 (26%) (Fig. 3E). EnvIL-21 significantly increased the CD38 expression on B cells (42%), compared to mock (26%) and Envwt (30%) treated cells (Fig. 3F). Thus, EnvIL-21 facilitates the induction of Ig-secreting plasmablast-like cells, showing that the inserted IL-21 domain is functional.
We have investigated a number of strategies to improve the IL21 function of EnvIL-21 based on previous studies but did not succeed in doing so (See Results S1 & Figures S1, S2, S3, S4).
Env Cleavage does not Interfere with the Bioactivity of EnvIL-21
Normal Env function requires cleavage of the Env precursor gp160 into the gp120 and gp41 subunits, and cleavage is also required for an optimal antigenic structure. Although cleaved soluble trimers might be better mimics of Env on the virions, their instability makes them difficult to study. Hence, several protein-engineering strategies have been employed to stabilize soluble Env trimers that include mutation of the cleavage site and introduction of heterologous trimerization domains. In our gp140 constructs, the cleavage site is intact and an intermolecular disulfide bond holds the gp120 and gp41 subunits together [67]. However, to increase the trimer stability, we also added a heterologous trimerization domain, and this interferes with Env cleavage [49], [66], [69]. To assess the influence of the inserted IL-21 domain on cleavage as well as the effect of cleavage on IL-21 activity, we removed this trimerization domain (isoleucine zipper (IZ)) from the EnvIL-21 construct (Fig. 4A & 4B).
Linear (A) and cartoon (B) representation of the EnvIL-21 and clEnvIL-21 proteins. Cleaved proteins were created by introducing a stop codon in front of the isoleucine zipper (IZ) trimerization domain in the EnvIL-21. (C) SDS-PAGE analysis of chimeric uncleaved and cleaved EnvIL-21 constructs.
We measured the cleavability of the EnvIL-21 trimers by subjecting them to SDS-PAGE analyses under reducing conditions. To increase the cleavage of cleavable Env protein, we co-delivered a plasmid encoding the Furin protease [65]. Expression of cleavable EnvIL-21 (clEnvIL-21) was higher than uncleaved EnvIL-21, and the cleavable EnvIL-21 (clEnvIL-21) migrated faster through the gel indicating that the gp41 ectodomain was indeed removed (Fig. 4C). Next, the effect of Env cleavage on the activity of IL-21 was tested on B cells. The clEnvIL-21 trimers were capable of augmenting the secretion of IgG (3.2±0.18 & 0.4±0.12 µg/ml), IgA (5.6±2.5 & 6±0.8 µg/ml) and IgM (13±3 & 10±0.4 µg/ml) from human B cells both in the CD40L/IL-10 & CD40L/IL-4/IL-10 containing milieus, whereas less IgG, IgA and IgM secretion was induced by cleaved Envwt (clEnv) (IgG 0.9±0.3 & 6.4±2.5, IgA 1.8±0.5 & 1.3±0.08, IgM 2.7±0.5 & 1.9±1.2 µg/ml), similar to the induction by uncleaved Envwt (Fig. 5A & 5B). Moreover, clEnvIL-21 efficiently induced the differentiation of B cells towards CD27+CD38+ plasmablast-like cells (29%) (Fig. 5C) similar to EnvIL-21 (27%), whereas clEnvIL-21 (19%) and mock supernatant treated B cells differentiated to a lesser extent (10–15%, data not shown). Compared to clEnv (27%), clEnvIL-21 (45%) significantly increased the CD38 expression on B cells (Fig. 5D).
Data are representative of two independent experiments using B cells from two different donor, each tested in duplicate. (C) The expression of cell surface markers CD38 and CD27 on B cells cultured with Envwt, EnvIL-21, clEnv and clEnvIL-21supernatants in medium supplemented with CD40L/IL-10. Data are representative of three independent experiments using B cells from three donors. (D) The expression of CD38 cell surface marker treated with different cleaved Env (clEnv) and cleaved EnvIL-21 (clEnvIL-21) constructs in CD40L/IL-10 milieu. Data are representative of six experiments using B cells from six donors.
Discussion
Currently, no HIV-1 Env-based subunit vaccine has been successful at inducing long-term protective humoral immunity against HIV-1. Adjuvant formulations can improve the immunogenicity of subunit vaccines in many ways, for example by activating professional immune cells and actively attracting them to the injection site. As an alternative approach to mixing antigen and adjuvant (or a co-stimulatory molecule), in which case adjuvant and antigen might be separated from each other by diffusion after injection, and hence interact with different immune cells, we have been following a strategy that entails covalently linking the antigen to the costimulatory molecule to ensure that the antigen and adjuvant interact with the same immune cells. Such construct we created was a chimeric molecule in which GM-CSF was incorporated into Env (EnvGM-CSF); it enhanced both T and B cell responses to Env in mice [42]. Our second chimeric molecule had an APRIL moiety fused to the C-terminus of Env trimers (EnvAPRIL); it activated human B cells, and induced better NAb responses to HIV-1 in rabbits [49], [69].
The two above studies provided the rationale for the current one. Here, we tested whether it would be possible to incorporate the B cell activating cytokine IL-21 into the Env V1V2 domain. IL-21 is important for generating and sustaining high affinity antibody responses in vivo and is a very potent inducer of plasma cell differentiation [52], [53], [73]–[75]. This property of IL-21 is of relevance for raising bNAbs because they usually contain a large number of somatic mutations [76]. Here, we describe a chimeric molecule that induces the differentiation of B cells into immunoglobulin secreting cells with a plasmablast-like phenotype.
When designing chimeric molecules, many restrictions, such as size, molecular weight and structure may limit the possibility of obtaining a well-folded antigen and a functional costimulatory molecule. Therefore we took our successfully engineered EnvGM-CSF as the template for the current study [41], [42]. The common γ chain cytokines IL-4 and IL-21 share the same four-helix bundle structure with GM-CSF; we anticipated that this would increase the likelihood of creating functional chimeric molecules [42], [50]. We could not detect the activity of EnvIL-4 on B cells, but this may be due to our experimental system as we did not observe activity for rhIL-4 under these conditions either. In other studies, we found that EnvIL-4 was capable of differentiating monocytes as monitored by downregulation of CD14, although it was not very potent at doing so (data not shown).
We cannot directly compare the functionality of the cytokine domains of EnvIL-21 and EnvGM-CSF in an in vitro assay because these cytokines have distinct biological properties and target different cell types. However, we did compare EnvIL-21 with the EnvAPRIL molecule that we previously described [49]. Interestingly, EnvIL-21 was considerably more potent at activating purified human B cells and inducing immunoglobulin secretion from purified human B cells in vitro (data not shown). We are planning immunization studies to compare the overall immunogenicity of EnvIL-21, EnvAPRIL, EnvGM-CSF, as well as other Env-fusion molecules in vivo.
The unmodified EnvIL-21 protein activated human B cells to secrete immunoglobulins and differentiate into plasmablast-like cells, but we were not successful in increasing the activity further. We did observe that replacing a region around helix C and the CD loop of IL-21 in EnvIL-21 by the corresponding region from IL-4 rescued the low expression of the EnvIL-21 protein, while preserving IL-21 activity. Hence this unstable region could play a role in the low expression of EnvIL-21. However, EnvChimIL-21/4 did not consistently enhance the activation of human B cells compared to EnvIL-21, contrary to what was found in a reporter assay using E.coli produced recombinant IL-21 [63]. Although shortening the CD loop may reduce flexibility and increase receptor signalling, specific contacts between IL-21 and the IL-21 receptor that are needed for full functionality might be lost upon introduction of the IL-4 segment [63]. We also introduced substitutions into the IL-21 domain of EnvIL-21 to increase the affinity of IL-21 to its receptor complex, based on previous receptor affinity studies. The selected mutations were previously shown to increase the affinity to one component of the IL-21 receptor complex (either the α- or the γ-chain), while decreasing the affinity for the other receptor chain [64]. However, none of the selected variants increased the potency of EnvIL-21. In contrast, except for the S113A mutant, all the selected mutations abolished the activity of EnvIL-21 on B cells, suggesting that a balanced interaction with both IL-21 receptor chains is required for optimal activity of EnvIL-21.
In our view, an ideal Env antigen should expose all or most known bNAb epitopes. Obviously, chimeric EnvIL-21 does not expose bNAb epitopes in the V1V2 domain such as those for PG9, PG16 and PGT145, for the simple reason that this domain was removed. The limited antigenic analyses we performed indicate that other Env epitopes in EnvIL-4, EnvIL-21, EnvChimIL-21/4 were similarly exposed as on Envwt, although b12 and CD4 itself bound slightly less efficiently. Furthermore, binding of MAb 48d to the CD4i epitope was reduced even in the presence of CD4. This is consistent with what we have observed previously for EnvGM-CSF. We suggest that intrinsic properties of the V1V2 allow CD4-induced conformational changes to occur and that replacing the V1V2 with a cytokine locks Env into the unliganded state [41].
The native Env spike on the virus is cleaved between gp120 and gp41, an event needed for Env function. Hence, an ideal (soluble) mimic of the Env spike should also be cleaved. In general, non-neutralizing antibodies favor uncleaved Env over cleaved Env while the opposite is true for bNAbs [24], [28]–[31], [65]. Therefore, we investigated whether IL-21 could be incorporated into cleaved gp140 constructs and found that Env cleavage did not interfere with the functionality of IL-21. The presence of IL-21 also did not affect Env cleavage, consistent with our previous findings with the EnvGM-CSF. Hence the V1V2 domain at the apex of the Env trimer does not influence cleavage of Env glycoprotein trimer [41].
We have generated a chimeric EnvIL-21 protein that combines a reasonably good antigenic structure of Env with the immunostimulatory effect of IL-21. The chimeric EnvIL-21 is not a perfect mimic of the Env spike on a virus, as exemplified by the lack of the epitopes of bNAbs such as PG9, PG16 and PGT145 [77]–[80]. Furthermore, EnvIL-21 of course lacks the epitopes for Abs directed to the V1V2 domain. Although we are actively working on EnvIL-21 chimeras that preserve the V1V2 domain, it remains to be seen whether the sacrifice of some possibly advantageous properties outweighs the beneficial effect of the insertion of IL-21 [81]. In conclusion, we have designed a new candidate Env immunogen, aimed at augmenting the B cell response against Env that might be worth testing in animal models.
Methods
Constructs
The plasmid expressing codon-optimized stabilized HIV-1 gp140 (SOSIP.R6-IZ; [11], [27], [65]–[67]) was used as the starting point for the constructs generated in this study (Fig. 1A). The Env is based on the subtype B, CCR5-using primary isolate JR-FL and is described in detail elsewhere [11], [27], [65]–[67]. Amino acid numbering is based on HXB2 gp160 according to convention. Codon-optimized DNA encoding human interleukin 4 (IL-4) and interleukin 21 (IL-21) flanked by HindIII and BmgBI restriction sites was synthesized (Mr. Gene Regensburg, Germany). The V1V2 domain of Env was exchanged with the sequences coding for IL-4 and IL-21 using the HindIII and BmgBI sites. Substitutions and insertions were generated using the QuikChange™ mutagenesis kit (Stratagene, CA, USA) and the sequence integrity of all constructs was verified by sequencing.
Reagents
HIV-Ig was obtained through the AIDS Research and Reference Reagent Program (ARRRP), Division of AIDS, NIAID, NIH. MAb 2G12 was obtained from Hermann Katinger through the ARRRP. CD4-IgG2, sCD4 and anti-V3 gp120 MAb PA1 were gifts from Bill Olson (Progenics Pharmaceutical, Tarrytown, NY). MAb b12 was donated by Dennis Burton (The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA). MAb 48d was a gift from James Robinson (Tulane University, New Orleans, LA). Recombinant human IL-21 (rhIL-21) (used at 10 ng/ml) was obtained from PeproTech (London, UK).
Cells Lines and Transfections
293T cells [42] were maintained in Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle’s Medium (DMEM; Invitrogen, Breda, The Netherlands) supplemented with 10% heat inactivated fetal calf serum (FCS; HyClone, Perbio, Etten-Leur, the Netherlands), MEM nonessential amino acids (0.1 mM; Invitrogen, Breda, the Netherlands) and penicillin/streptomycin (both at 100 U/ml). 293T cells were transiently transfected with plasmids expressing recombinant Env using the Nanofectamine reagent following the manufacturer's recommendation (PAA, Pasching, Austria). For cleavable Env, a plasmid encoding the furin protease was co-transfected at a 1∶2 ratio with the Env encoding plasmid [65]. Env containing supernatants were harvested 48 h after transfection and frozen in aliquots.
SDS-PAGE and Western Blotting
SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and western blotting were performed as previously described [66]. Env was detected using the MAb PA1 (0.2 µg/ml) and a 1∶5,000 diluted secondary HRP-labeled goat-anti-mouse IgG (Kirkegaard & Perry Laboratories, Maryland, USA) followed by detection using the Western Lightning ECL solution (PerkinElmer, Groningen, The Netherlands).
Molecular Modeling
Structurally plausible models for the fusion human interleukin-21 (IL-21) into the V1V2 loop of gp120 within a trimeric spike were essentially generated as described previously [42]. The trimeric configuration of gp120 in an unliganded spike was obtained by fitting the b12-bound conformation of HxBC2 core gp120 (PDB ID: 2NY7; [70]) into the cryoelectron tomography density of unliganded HIV-1 BaL virus using Chimera [71], [82]. RosettaDesign [83], [84] was used to thread the sequence of JRFL SOSIP.R6-IZ-H8 core gp120 onto the 2NY7 gp120 structure from residue 83 to 492. The structure of hIL-21 [63] was inserted into the V1V2 loop of the threaded model of JRFL SOSIP.R6-IZ-H8 core gp120 between residues 127 and 195 (gp120 2NY7 numbering), flanked by Gly-Ser-Gly (GSG) linkers on both sides. Domain insertion was carried out in the context of the gp120 trimer and in the presence of the b12 Fab bound to each of the three gp120 monomers to provide functional steric constraints during the modeling procedure.
Env Trimer ELISA
Env trimer ELISA was performed as previously described [11], [66]. Briefly, supernatants containing His-tagged Env gp140 proteins were diluted 1∶3 in TBS (10 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, pH 7.5) supplemented with 10% FCS and added for 2 h to pre-blocked Ni-NTA HisSorb 96-well plates (Qiagen, Venlo, The Netherlands). After three washes using TSM (20 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, 1 mM CaCl2, and 2 mM MgCl2), serially diluted polyclonal HIV-Ig, Env specific monoclonal Abs, or CD4-IgG2, in TSM 5% BSA was then added for 2 h, with or without 1 µg/ml sCD4, followed by three washes with TSM, 0.05% Tween20. Horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-labeled goat-anti-human immunoglobulin G (0.2 µg/ml, Jackson Immunoresearch, Suffolk, UK) was used as secondary Ab and the absorption at 450 nm was measured after the colorimetric reaction was stopped using H2SO4. Equal input levels were verified SDS-PAGE followed by western blot analysis.
Ig Secretion by Human B Cells
Human B cells were isolated from buffy coats of healthy donors obtained from the New York Blood Center by negative selection with B cell isolation kit II (Miltenyi Biotech, Auburn, USA). The purity of the sorted B cells was more than 97%, as assessed by CD19 staining. Purified B cells (5×104) were plated in a 96-well U-bottom plate in 200 µl of complete RPMI 1640 medium containing 10% FBS, 2mM glutamine, 100U/ml streptomycin, 100U/ml penicillin, 1mM sodium pyruvate, and 10mM HEPES (all from Invitrogen, Carlsbad, USA). The cells were treated with 20 µl of 293T cell supernatant transfected with Envwt or Env-fusion proteins in the presence of recombinant CD40L (Enzo Life Sciences, NY, USA) (200 ng/ml), interleukin-4 (IL-4) (R&D Systems, MN, USA) (10 ng/ml), and IL-10 (R&D Systems) (200 ng/ml) for 14 days. The amount of Env or Env-fusion proteins was normalized based on an anti-Env ELISA using the 2G12 MAb (data not shown) and adjusted using mock transfection supernatant. Recombinant human IL-21 (rhIL-21) was used at 10 ng/ml concentration. Culture supernatants were collected for the analysis of immunoglobulin secretion by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (Bethyl Laboratories, Cambridge, UK). For fold-change calculations, the background levels of IgG, IgA and IgM secretion induced by the stimulation cocktail without Env or fusion proteins were subtracted from the test values and the fold-change was calculated compared to Envwt. Note that B cells cultured with supernatant of cleaved EnvIL-21 co-transfected with a plasmid encoding furin were not viable; suggesting that residual furin in the supernatant had a toxic effect on these cells (data not shown). For this reason, the B cell experiments with cleavable Env and EnvIL-21 were performed with proteins prepared without furin co-transfection.
Flow Cytometry
B cells were immunophenotyped using fluorochrome-labeled MAb against CD38 (clone HIT2) and CD27 (clone M-T271) after 7 days of culturing with Env containing supernatant. The B cells were transferred into 96-well U-bottomed plates prior to staining and washed with ice-cold FACS buffer (PBS containing 2% heat-inactivated FBS) with centrifugation at 300×g at 4°C. B cells were stained for each MAb combination. MAb cocktails (50 µl) containing pre-titrated antibodies were added to B cells for 20 min on ice. Isotype-matched control MAbs were included in every assay. After staining, the B cells were washed twice and fixed in 1% paraformaldehyde. Two-color analysis was performed using a LSR II flow cytometer (BD Biosciences) and the results were analyzed in FlowJo software, version 9.4.3 (Tree Star, Ashland, OR, USA).
Supporting Information
Figure S1.
Schematics and expression of the EnvIL-21 and EnvChimIL-21/4. Linear (A) and cartoon (B) representation of the EnvIL-21 and EnvChimIL-21/4 constructs. HIV-1 Env molecule which has a chimeric IL-21/4 (ChimIL-21/4) cytokine molecule inserted in V1V2 domain (EnvChimIL-21/4) was designed by replacing amino acids 76 to 93 of IL-21, around helix C and the CD loop, with the homologous region of IL-4 (amino acids 87 to 98 of IL-4). (C) EnvIL-21 and EnvChimIL-21/4 proteins expressed transiently in 293T cells were analyzed by reducing SDS-PAGE analysis followed by western blot.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0067309.s001
(TIFF)
Figure S2.
Antigenic characterization of EnvIL-21 and EnvChimIL-21/4. ELISA reactivity of EnvIL-21 and EnvChimIL-21/4 with 2G12 and HIV-Ig (A); b12 and CD4-IgG2 (B); and 48d (CD4i) in the absence and presence of sCD4 (C). All ELISA results are representative of at least three independent experiments using proteins derived from three independent transfections.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0067309.s002
(TIFF)
Figure S3.
Immunoglobulin secretion from B cells cultured with Envwt, EnvIL-21 and EnvChimIL-21/4 molecules supplemented with (A) CD40L/IL-10 and (B) CD40L/IL-4/IL-10. EnvChimIL-21/4 augmented the secretion of IgG (4.4±2 & 2.4±0.8 µg/ml), IgA (1.78±0.5 & 0.66±0.13 µg/ml) and IgM (1.2±0.2 & 1±0.2 µg/ml) by human B cells. Culture supernatant from mock transfected 293T cells was used as a negative control. Data are representative of three independent experiments using B cells from three donors, each tested in duplicate.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0067309.s003
(TIFF)
Figure S4.
Schematics (A) and expression (B) of EnvIL-21 variants amino acid substitutions that modulate the interaction with the IL-21Rα and γC chains. Immunoglobulin secretion from B cells cultured with Envwt, EnvIL-21, and EnvIL-21 variants in the presence of (C) CD40L/IL-10 and (D) CD40L/IL-4/IL-10. Data are representative of three experiments using B cells from different donors.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0067309.s004
(TIFF)
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: GI NPYC TvM KM. Performed the experiments: GI NPYC KM. Analyzed the data: GI NPYC SM KM. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: SM WRS. Wrote the paper: GI NPYC RWS. Edited the paper: JPM.
References
- 1. Haynes BF, Gilbert PB, McElrath MJ, Zolla-Pazner S, Tomaras GD, et al. (2012) Immune-correlates analysis of an HIV-1 vaccine efficacy trial. N Engl J Med 366: 1275–1286 10.1056/NEJMoa1113425 [doi].
- 2. Rerks-Ngarm S, Pitisuttithum P, Nitayaphan S, Kaewkungwal J, Chiu J, et al. (2009) Vaccination with ALVAC and AIDSVAX to prevent HIV-1 infection in Thailand. N Engl J Med 361: 2209–2220 NEJMoa0908492 [pii];10.1056/NEJMoa0908492 [doi].
- 3. Baba TW, Liska V, Hofmann-Lehmann R, Vlasak J, et al. (2000) Human neutralizing monoclonal antibodies of the IgG1 subtype protect against mucosal simian-human immunodeficiency virus infection. Nat Med 6: 200–206 10.1038/72309 [doi].
- 4. Burton DR, Hessell AJ, Keele BF, Klasse PJ, Ketas TA, et al. (2011) Limited or no protection by weakly or nonneutralizing antibodies against vaginal SHIV challenge of macaques compared with a strongly neutralizing antibody. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108: 11181–11186 1103012108 [pii];10.1073/pnas.1103012108 [doi].
- 5. Mascola JR, Lewis MG, Stiegler G, Harris D, VanCott TC, et al. (1999) Protection of Macaques against pathogenic simian/human immunodeficiency virus 89.6PD by passive transfer of neutralizing antibodies. J Virol 73: 4009–4018.
- 6. Mascola JR, Stiegler G, VanCott TC, Katinger H, Carpenter CB, et al. (2000) Protection of macaques against vaginal transmission of a pathogenic HIV-1/SIV chimeric virus by passive infusion of neutralizing antibodies. Nat Med 6: 207–210 10.1038/72318 [doi].
- 7. Parren PW, Marx PA, Hessell AJ, Luckay A, Harouse J, et al. (2001) Antibody protects macaques against vaginal challenge with a pathogenic R5 simian/human immunodeficiency virus at serum levels giving complete neutralization in vitro. J Virol 75: 8340–8347.
- 8. Shibata R, Igarashi T, Haigwood N, Buckler-White A, Ogert R, et al. (1999) Neutralizing antibody directed against the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein can completely block HIV-1/SIV chimeric virus infections of macaque monkeys. Nat Med 5: 204–210 10.1038/5568 [doi].
- 9. Veazey RS, Shattock RJ, Pope M, Kirijan JC, Jones J, et al. (2003) Prevention of virus transmission to macaque monkeys by a vaginally applied monoclonal antibody to HIV-1 gp120. Nat Med 9: 343–346 10.1038/nm833 [doi];nm833 [pii].
- 10. Barnett SW, Lu S, Srivastava I, Cherpelis S, Gettie A, et al. (2001) The ability of an oligomeric human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope antigen to elicit neutralizing antibodies against primary HIV-1 isolates is improved following partial deletion of the second hypervariable region. J Virol 75: 5526–5540 10.1128/JVI.75.12.5526–5540.2001 [doi].
- 11. Bontjer I, Melchers M, Eggink D, David K, Moore JP, et al. (2010) Stabilized HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein trimers lacking the V1V2 domain, obtained by virus evolution. J Biol Chem 285: 36456–36470 M110.156588 [pii];10.1074/jbc.M110.156588 [doi].
- 12. Burton DR, Desrosiers RC, Doms RW, Koff WC, Kwong PD, et al. (2004) HIV vaccine design and the neutralizing antibody problem. Nat Immunol 5: 233–236 10.1038/ni0304–233 [doi];ni0304–233 [pii].
- 13. Cao J, Sullivan N, Desjardin E, Parolin C, Robinson J, et al. (1997) Replication and neutralization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 lacking the V1 and V2 variable loops of the gp120 envelope glycoprotein. J Virol 71: 9808–9812.
- 14. Kwong PD, Wilson IA (2009) HIV-1 and influenza antibodies: seeing antigens in new ways. Nat Immunol 10: 573–578 ni.1746 [pii];10.1038/ni.1746 [doi].
- 15. Srivastava IK, VanDorsten K, Vojtech L, Barnett SW, Stamatatos L (2003) Changes in the immunogenic properties of soluble gp140 human immunodeficiency virus envelope constructs upon partial deletion of the second hypervariable region. J Virol 77: 2310–2320.
- 16. McLellan JS, Pancera M, Carrico C, Gorman J, Julien JP, et al. (2011) Structure of HIV-1 gp120 V1/V2 domain with broadly neutralizing antibody PG9. Nature 480: 336–343 nature10696 [pii];10.1038/nature10696 [doi].
- 17. Pejchal R, Doores KJ, Walker LM, Khayat R, Huang PS, et al. (2011) A potent and broad neutralizing antibody recognizes and penetrates the HIV glycan shield. Science 334: 1097–1103 science.1213256 [pii];10.1126/science.1213256 [doi].
- 18. Sanders RW, Venturi M, Schiffner L, Kalyanaraman R, Katinger H, et al. (2002) The mannose-dependent epitope for neutralizing antibody 2G12 on human immunodeficiency virus type 1 glycoprotein gp120. J Virol 76: 7293–7305.
- 19. Scanlan CN, Pantophlet R, Wormald MR, Ollmann SE, Stanfield R, et al. (2002) The broadly neutralizing anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 antibody 2G12 recognizes a cluster of alpha1–>2 mannose residues on the outer face of gp120. J Virol 76: 7306–7321.
- 20. Reitter JN, Means RE, Desrosiers RC (1998) A role for carbohydrates in immune evasion in AIDS. Nat Med 4: 679–684.
- 21. Reitter JN, Desrosiers RC (1998) Identification of replication-competent strains of simian immunodeficiency virus lacking multiple attachment sites for N-linked carbohydrates in variable regions 1 and 2 of the surface envelope protein. J Virol 72: 5399–5407.
- 22. Wei X, Decker JM, Wang S, Hui H, Kappes JC, et al. (2003) Antibody neutralization and escape by HIV-1. Nature 422: 307–312 10.1038/nature01470 [doi];nature01470 [pii].
- 23. Crooks ET, Tong T, Osawa K, Binley JM (2011) Enzyme digests eliminate nonfunctional Env from HIV-1 particle surfaces, leaving native Env trimers intact and viral infectivity unaffected. J Virol 85: 5825–5839 JVI.00154–11 [pii];10.1128/JVI.00154–11 [doi].
- 24. Moore PL, Crooks ET, Porter L, Zhu P, Cayanan CS, et al. (2006) Nature of nonfunctional envelope proteins on the surface of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol 80: 2515–2528 80/5/2515 [pii];10.1128/JVI.80.5.2515–2528.2006 [doi].
- 25. Parren PW, Burton DR, Sattentau QJ (1997) HIV-1 antibody–debris or virion? Nat Med 3: 366–367.
- 26. Parren PW, Burton DR (1997) Antibodies against HIV-1 from phage display libraries: mapping of an immune response and progress towards antiviral immunotherapy. Chem Immunol 65: 18–56.
- 27. Binley JM, Sanders RW, Clas B, Schuelke N, Master A, et al. (2000) A recombinant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope glycoprotein complex stabilized by an intermolecular disulfide bond between the gp120 and gp41 subunits is an antigenic mimic of the trimeric virion-associated structure. J Virol 74: 627–643.
- 28. Dey AK, David KB, Lu M, Moore JP (2009) Biochemical and biophysical comparison of cleaved and uncleaved soluble, trimeric HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins. Virology 385: 275–281 S0042–6822(08)00802–7 [pii];10.1016/j.virol.2008.12.009 [doi].
- 29. Li Y, O'Dell S, Wilson R, Wu X, Schmidt SD, et al. (2012) HIV-1 neutralizing antibodies display dual recognition of the primary and coreceptor binding sites and preferential binding to fully cleaved envelope glycoproteins. J Virol 86: 11231–11241 JVI.01543–12 [pii];10.1128/JVI.01543–12 [doi].
- 30. Pancera M, Wyatt R (2005) Selective recognition of oligomeric HIV-1 primary isolate envelope glycoproteins by potently neutralizing ligands requires efficient precursor cleavage. Virology 332: 145–156 S0042–6822(04)00727–5 [pii];10.1016/j.virol.2004.10.042 [doi].
- 31. Si Z, Phan N, Kiprilov E, Sodroski J (2003) Effects of HIV type 1 envelope glycoprotein proteolytic processing on antigenicity. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 19: 217–226 10.1089/088922203763315722 [doi].
- 32. Anderson KP, Lucas C, Hanson CV, Londe HF, Izu A, et al. (1989) Effect of dose and immunization schedule on immune response of baboons to recombinant glycoprotein 120 of HIV-1. J Infect Dis 160: 960–969.
- 33. Gilbert PB, Peterson ML, Follmann D, Hudgens MG, Francis DP, et al. (2005) Correlation between immunologic responses to a recombinant glycoprotein 120 vaccine and incidence of HIV-1 infection in a phase 3 HIV-1 preventive vaccine trial. J Infect Dis 191: 666–677 JID33334 [pii];10.1086/428405 [doi].
- 34. Banerjee K, Michael E, Eggink D, van Montfort T, Lasnik AB, et al. (2012) Occluding the mannose moieties on human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp120 with griffithsin improves the antibody responses to both proteins in mice. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 28: 206–214 10.1089/aid.2011.0101 [doi].
- 35.
Chung NP, Matthews K, Klasse PJ, Sanders RW, Moore JP (2012) HIV-1 gp120 Impairs the Induction of B Cell Responses by TLR9-Activated Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells. J Immunol. jimmunol.1201905 [pii];10.4049/jimmunol.1201905 [doi].
- 36. Martinelli E, Cicala C, Van Ryk D, Goode DJ, Macleod K, et al. (2007) HIV-1 gp120 inhibits TLR9-mediated activation and IFN-{alpha} secretion in plasmacytoid dendritic cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104: 3396–3401 0611353104 [pii];10.1073/pnas.0611353104 [doi].
- 37. Shan M, Klasse PJ, Banerjee K, Dey AK, Iyer SP, et al. (2007) HIV-1 gp120 mannoses induce immunosuppressive responses from dendritic cells. PLoS Pathog 3: e169 07-PLPA-RA-0438 [pii];10.1371/journal.ppat.0030169 [doi].
- 38. Banerjee K, Andjelic S, Klasse PJ, Kang Y, Sanders RW, et al. (2009) Enzymatic removal of mannose moieties can increase the immune response to HIV-1 gp120 in vivo. Virology 389: 108–121 S0042–6822(09)00236–0 [pii];10.1016/j.virol.2009.04.001 [doi].
- 39. Kutzler MA, Weiner DB (2004) Developing DNA vaccines that call to dendritic cells. J Clin Invest 114: 1241–1244 10.1172/JCI23467 [doi].
- 40. Yu H, Tawab-Amiri A, Dzutsev A, Sabatino M, Aleman K, et al. (2011) IL-15 ex vivo overcomes CD4+ T cell deficiency for the induction of human antigen-specific CD8+ T cell responses. J Leukoc Biol 90: 205–214 jlb.1010579 [pii];10.1189/jlb.1010579 [doi].
- 41. Isik G, van Montfort T, Boot M, Cobos Jiménez V, Kootstra NA, et al. (2013) Chimeric HIV-1 Envelope Glycoproteins with Potent Intrinsic Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) Activity. PLoS One 8: e60126
- 42. van Montfort T, Melchers M, Isik G, Menis S, Huang PS, et al. (2011) A chimeric HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein trimer with an embedded granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) domain induces enhanced antibody and T cell responses. J Biol Chem 286: 22250–22261 M111.229625 [pii];10.1074/jbc.M111.229625 [doi].
- 43. Denecker G, Vandenabeele P, Grooten J, Penning LC, Declercq W, et al. (1997) Differential role of calcium in tumour necrosis factor-mediated apoptosis and secretion of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in a T cell hybridoma. Cytokine 9: 631–638 S1043–4666(97)90218–0 [pii];10.1006/cyto.1997.0218 [doi].
- 44. Just U, Friel J, Heberlein C, Tamura T, Baccarini M, et al. (1993) Upregulation of lineage specific receptors and ligands in multipotential progenitor cells is part of an endogenous program of differentiation. Growth Factors 9: 291–300.
- 45. Klein B, Le Bousse-Kerdiles C, Smadja-Joffe F, Pragnell I, Ostertag W, et al. (1982) A study of added GM-CSF independent granulocyte and macrophage precursors in mouse spleen infected with myeloproliferative sarcoma virus (MPSV). Exp Hematol 10: 373–382.
- 46. Castigli E, Scott S, Dedeoglu F, Bryce P, Jabara H, et al. (2004) Impaired IgA class switching in APRIL-deficient mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101: 3903–3908 10.1073/pnas.0307348101 [doi];0307348101 [pii].
- 47. Castigli E, Wilson SA, Scott S, Dedeoglu F, Xu S, et al. (2005) TACI and BAFF-R mediate isotype switching in B cells. J Exp Med 201: 35–39 jem.20032000 [pii];10.1084/jem.20032000 [doi].
- 48. O'Connor BP, Raman VS, Erickson LD, Cook WJ, Weaver LK, et al. (2004) BCMA is essential for the survival of long-lived bone marrow plasma cells. J Exp Med 199: 91–98 10.1084/jem.20031330 [doi];199/1/91 [pii].
- 49. Melchers M, Bontjer I, Tong T, Chung NP, Klasse PJ, et al. (2012) Targeting HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein trimers to B cells by using APRIL improves antibody responses. J Virol 86: 2488–2500 JVI.06259–11 [pii];10.1128/JVI.06259–11 [doi].
- 50.
Hill EE, Morea V, Chothia C (2002) Sequence conservation in families whose members have little or no sequence similarity: the four-helical cytokines and cytochromes. J Mol Biol 322: 205–233. S0022283602006538 [pii].
- 51.
Ettinger R, Sims GP, Fairhurst AM, Robbins R, da Silva YS, et al.. (2005) IL-21 induces differentiation of human naive and memory B cells into antibody-secreting plasma cells. J Immunol 175: 7867–7879. 175/12/7867 [pii].
- 52.
Ozaki K, Spolski R, Ettinger R, Kim HP, Wang G, et al.. (2004) Regulation of B cell differentiation and plasma cell generation by IL-21, a novel inducer of Blimp-1 and Bcl-6. J Immunol 173: 5361–5371. 173/9/5361 [pii].
- 53. Eto D, Lao C, DiToro D, Barnett B, Escobar TC, et al. (2011) IL-21 and IL-6 are critical for different aspects of B cell immunity and redundantly induce optimal follicular helper CD4 T cell (Tfh) differentiation. PLoS One 6: e17739 10.1371/journal.pone.0017739 [doi].
- 54. Chtanova T, Tangye SG, Newton R, Frank N, Hodge MR, et al. (2004) T follicular helper cells express a distinctive transcriptional profile, reflecting their role as non-Th1/Th2 effector cells that provide help for B cells. J Immunol 173: 68–78.
- 55.
Coquet JM, Kyparissoudis K, Pellicci DG, Besra G, Berzins SP, et al.. (2007) IL-21 is produced by NKT cells and modulates NKT cell activation and cytokine production. J Immunol 178: 2827–2834. 178/5/2827 [pii].
- 56. Parrish-Novak J, Dillon SR, Nelson A, Hammond A, Sprecher C, et al. (2000) Interleukin 21 and its receptor are involved in NK cell expansion and regulation of lymphocyte function. Nature 408: 57–63 10.1038/35040504 [doi].
- 57. McHeyzer-Williams LJ, Pelletier N, Mark L, Fazilleau N, McHeyzer-Williams MG (2009) Follicular helper T cells as cognate regulators of B cell immunity. Curr Opin Immunol 21: 266–273 S0952–7915(09)00090–9 [pii];10.1016/j.coi.2009.05.010 [doi].
- 58. Fazilleau N, Mark L, McHeyzer-Williams LJ, McHeyzer-Williams MG (2009) Follicular helper T cells: lineage and location. Immunity 30: 324–335 S1074–7613(09)00114–9 [pii];10.1016/j.immuni.2009.03.003 [doi].
- 59. Thorbecke GJ, Amin AR, Tsiagbe VK (1994) Biology of germinal centers in lymphoid tissue. FASEB J 8: 832–840.
- 60. Davis ID, Skrumsager BK, Cebon J, Nicholaou T, Barlow JW, et al. (2007) An open-label, two-arm, phase I trial of recombinant human interleukin-21 in patients with metastatic melanoma. Clin Cancer Res 13: 3630–3636 13/12/3630 [pii];10.1158/1078–0432.CCR-07–0410 [doi].
- 61. Zeng R, Spolski R, Finkelstein SE, Oh S, Kovanen PE, et al. (2005) Synergy of IL-21 and IL-15 in regulating CD8+ T cell expansion and function. J Exp Med 201: 139–148 jem.20041057 [pii];10.1084/jem.20041057 [doi].
- 62. Thompson JA, Curti BD, Redman BG, Bhatia S, Weber JS, et al. (2008) Phase I study of recombinant interleukin-21 in patients with metastatic melanoma and renal cell carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 26: 2034–2039 JCO.2007.14.5193 [pii];10.1200/JCO.2007.14.5193 [doi].
- 63. Bondensgaard K, Breinholt J, Madsen D, Omkvist DH, Kang L, et al. (2007) The existence of multiple conformers of interleukin-21 directs engineering of a superpotent analogue. J Biol Chem 282: 23326–23336 M701313200 [pii];10.1074/jbc.M701313200 [doi].
- 64. Kang L, Bondensgaard K, Li T, Hartmann R, Hjorth SA (2010) Rational design of interleukin-21 antagonist through selective elimination of the gammaC binding epitope. J Biol Chem 285: 12223–12231 M110.101444 [pii];10.1074/jbc.M110.101444 [doi].
- 65. Binley JM, Sanders RW, Master A, Cayanan CS, Wiley CL, et al. (2002) Enhancing the proteolytic maturation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope glycoproteins. J Virol 76: 2606–2616.
- 66. Eggink D, Melchers M, Wuhrer M, van Montfort T, Dey AK, et al. (2010) Lack of complex N-glycans on HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins preserves protein conformation and entry function. Virology 401: 236–247 S0042–6822(10)00128–5 [pii];10.1016/j.virol.2010.02.019 [doi].
- 67. Sanders RW, Vesanen M, Schuelke N, Master A, Schiffner L, et al. (2002) Stabilization of the soluble, cleaved, trimeric form of the envelope glycoprotein complex of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol 76: 8875–8889.
- 68. Bontjer I, Land A, Eggink D, Verkade E, Tuin K, et al. (2009) Optimization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope glycoproteins with V1/V2 deleted, using virus evolution. J Virol 83: 368–383 JVI.01404–08 [pii];10.1128/JVI.01404–08 [doi].
- 69. Melchers M, Matthews K, de Vries RP, Eggink D, van Montfort T, et al. (2011) A stabilized HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein trimer fused to CD40 ligand targets and activates dendritic cells. Retrovirology 8: 48 1742-4690-8-48 [pii];10.1186/1742-4690-8-48 [doi].
- 70. Zhou T, Xu L, Dey B, Hessell AJ, Van Ryk D, et al. (2007) Structural definition of a conserved neutralization epitope on HIV-1 gp120. Nature 445: 732–737 nature05580 [pii];10.1038/nature05580 [doi].
- 71. Liu J, Bartesaghi A, Borgnia MJ, Sapiro G, Subramaniam S (2008) Molecular architecture of native HIV-1 gp120 trimers. Nature 455: 109–113 nature07159 [pii];10.1038/nature07159 [doi].
- 72.
He B, Qiao X, Klasse PJ, Chiu A, Chadburn A, et al.. (2006) HIV-1 envelope triggers polyclonal Ig class switch recombination through a CD40-independent mechanism involving BAFF and C-type lectin receptors. J Immunol 176: 3931–3941. 176/7/3931 [pii].
- 73. Avery DT, Deenick EK, Ma CS, Suryani S, Simpson N, et al. (2010) B cell-intrinsic signaling through IL-21 receptor and STAT3 is required for establishing long-lived antibody responses in humans. J Exp Med 207: 155–171 jem.20091706 [pii];10.1084/jem.20091706 [doi].
- 74. Linterman MA, Beaton L, Yu D, Ramiscal RR, Srivastava M, et al. (2010) IL-21 acts directly on B cells to regulate Bcl-6 expression and germinal center responses. J Exp Med 207: 353–363 jem.20091738 [pii];10.1084/jem.20091738 [doi].
- 75. Zotos D, Coquet JM, Zhang Y, Light A, D'Costa K, et al. (2010) IL-21 regulates germinal center B cell differentiation and proliferation through a B cell-intrinsic mechanism. J Exp Med 207: 365–378 jem.20091777 [pii];10.1084/jem.20091777 [doi].
- 76. Wrammert J, Koutsonanos D, Li GM, Edupuganti S, Sui J, et al. (2011) Broadly cross-reactive antibodies dominate the human B cell response against 2009 pandemic H1N1 influenza virus infection. J Exp Med 208: 181–193 jem.20101352 [pii];10.1084/jem.20101352 [doi].
- 77.
Julien JP, Lee JH, Cupo A, Murin CD, Derking R, et al.. (2013) Asymmetric recognition of the HIV-1 trimer by broadly neutralizing antibody PG9. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1217537110 [pii];10.1073/pnas.1217537110 [doi].
- 78. Pancera M, McLellan JS, Wu X, Zhu J, Changela A, et al. (2010) Crystal structure of PG16 and chimeric dissection with somatically related PG9: structure-function analysis of two quaternary-specific antibodies that effectively neutralize HIV-1. J Virol 84: 8098–8110 JVI.00966–10 [pii];10.1128/JVI.00966–10 [doi].
- 79. Pejchal R, Walker LM, Stanfield RL, Phogat SK, Koff WC, et al. (2010) Structure and function of broadly reactive antibody PG16 reveal an H3 subdomain that mediates potent neutralization of HIV-1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107: 11483–11488 1004600107 [pii];10.1073/pnas.1004600107 [doi].
- 80. Walker LM, Phogat SK, Chan-Hui PY, Wagner D, Phung P, et al. (2009) Broad and potent neutralizing antibodies from an African donor reveal a new HIV-1 vaccine target. Science 326: 285–289 1178746 [pii];10.1126/science.1178746 [doi].
- 81. Rolland M, Edlefsen PT, Larsen BB, Tovanabutra S, Sanders-Buell E, et al. (2012) Increased HIV-1 vaccine efficacy against viruses with genetic signatures in Env V2. Nature 490: 417–420 nature11519 [pii];10.1038/nature11519 [doi].
- 82. Pettersen EF, Goddard TD, Huang CC, Couch GS, Greenblatt DM, et al. (2004) UCSF Chimera–a visualization system for exploratory research and analysis. J Comput Chem 25: 1605–1612 10.1002/jcc.20084 [doi].
- 83. Kuhlman B, O'Neill JW, Kim DE, Zhang KY, Baker D (2001) Conversion of monomeric protein L to an obligate dimer by computational protein design. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98: 10687–10691 10.1073/pnas.181354398 [doi];181354398 [pii].
- 84. Liu Y, Kuhlman B (2006) RosettaDesign server for protein design. Nucleic Acids Res 34: W235–W238 34/suppl_2/W235 [pii];10.1093/nar/gkl163 [doi].
- 85. Cutalo JM, Deterding LJ, Tomer KB (2004) Characterization of glycopeptides from HIV-I(SF2) gp120 by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. J Am Soc Mass Spectrom 15: 1545–1555 S1044–0305(04)00480–5 [pii];10.1016/j.jasms.2004.07.008 [doi].
- 86. Leonard CK, Spellman MW, Riddle L, Harris RJ, Thomas JN, et al. (1990) Assignment of intrachain disulfide bonds and characterization of potential glycosylation sites of the type 1 recombinant human immunodeficiency virus envelope glycoprotein (gp120) expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells. J Biol Chem 265: 10373–10382.
- 87.
Zhu X, Borchers C, Bienstock RJ, Tomer KB (2000) Mass spectrometric characterization of the glycosylation pattern of HIV-gp120 expressed in CHO cells. Biochemistry 39: 11194–11204. bi000432m [pii].
- 88.
DeLano WL (2002) The PyMOL Molecular Graphics System.