About the Authors

Simon I Hay

To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: simon.hay@zoo.ox.ac.uk

Affiliations Malaria Public Health and Epidemiology Group, Centre for Geographic Medicine, Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI)–University of Oxford–Wellcome Trust Collaborative Programme, Nairobi, Kenya , Spatial Ecology and Epidemiology Group, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom

Carlos A Guerra

Affiliations Malaria Public Health and Epidemiology Group, Centre for Geographic Medicine, Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI)–University of Oxford–Wellcome Trust Collaborative Programme, Nairobi, Kenya , Spatial Ecology and Epidemiology Group, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom

Peter W Gething

Affiliations Spatial Ecology and Epidemiology Group, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom , Centre for Geographical Health Research, School of Geography, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton, United Kingdom

Anand P Patil

Affiliation Spatial Ecology and Epidemiology Group, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom

Andrew J Tatem

Affiliations Malaria Public Health and Epidemiology Group, Centre for Geographic Medicine, Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI)–University of Oxford–Wellcome Trust Collaborative Programme, Nairobi, Kenya , Spatial Ecology and Epidemiology Group, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom , Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America , Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America

Abdisalan M Noor

Affiliations Malaria Public Health and Epidemiology Group, Centre for Geographic Medicine, Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI)–University of Oxford–Wellcome Trust Collaborative Programme, Nairobi, Kenya , Centre for Tropical Medicine, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Centre for Clinical Vaccinology and Tropical Medicine (CCVTM), Oxford, United Kingdom

Caroline W Kabaria

Affiliation Malaria Public Health and Epidemiology Group, Centre for Geographic Medicine, Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI)–University of Oxford–Wellcome Trust Collaborative Programme, Nairobi, Kenya

Bui H Manh

Affiliation Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Bach Mai Hospital, National Institute of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Ha Noi, Vietnam

Iqbal R. F Elyazar

Affiliation Eijkman-Oxford Clinical Research Unit, Jakarta, Indonesia

Simon Brooker

Affiliations Malaria Public Health and Epidemiology Group, Centre for Geographic Medicine, Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI)–University of Oxford–Wellcome Trust Collaborative Programme, Nairobi, Kenya , Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, United Kingdom

David L Smith

Affiliations Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America , Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America

Rana A Moyeed

Affiliation School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, Devon, United Kingdom

Robert W Snow

Affiliations Malaria Public Health and Epidemiology Group, Centre for Geographic Medicine, Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI)–University of Oxford–Wellcome Trust Collaborative Programme, Nairobi, Kenya , Centre for Tropical Medicine, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Centre for Clinical Vaccinology and Tropical Medicine (CCVTM), Oxford, United Kingdom

Competing Interests

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Author Contributions

SIH and RWS conceived the experiments. SB and RAM had a statistical advisory role throughout. PWG, APP, and AJT refined and implemented the experimental protocols. DLS devised the age-standardization procedures. SIH, CAG, AMN, CWK, BHM, IRFE, and RWS compiled and mapped the PfPR data. SIH wrote the first draft of the manuscript. SIH, CAG, PWG, APP, AJT, AMN, CWK, BHM, IRFE, SB, DLS, RAM, and RWS commented on the final draft of the manuscript.